Zunbil, also written as Zhunbil, or Rutbils of Zabulistan, was a royal dynasty south of the

Hindu Kush The Hindu Kush is an mountain range in Central Asia, Central and South Asia to the west of the Himalayas. It stretches from central and eastern Afghanistan into northwestern Pakistan and far southeastern Tajikistan. The range forms the wester ...

in present southern

Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...

region. They were a dynasty of

Hephthalite The Hephthalites (), sometimes called the White Huns (also known as the White Hunas, in Iranian as the ''Spet Xyon'' and in Sanskrit and Prakrit as the ''Sveta-huna''), were a people who lived in Central Asia during the 5th to 8th centuries CE, ...

origin. They ruled from circa 680 AD until the Saffarid conquest in 870 AD. The Zunbil dynasty was founded by Rutbil (Turkic: ''Iltäbär''), the elder brother of the

Turk Shahi The Turk Shahis were a dynasty of Western Turk, or mixed Western Turk, Turco-Hephthalite origin, that ruled from Kabul and Kapisa (city), Kapisa to Gandhara in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. They may have been of Khalaj people, Khalaj ethnicity."T ...

ruler (either

Barha Tegin Barha Tegin (665 - 680 CE) was the first ruler of the Turk Shahis. He is only known in name from the accounts of the Muslim historian Al-Biruni and reconstructions from Chinese sources, and the identification of his coinage remains conjectural. ...

Tegin Shah Shahi Tegin, Tegin Shah or Sri Shahi (ruled 680–739 CE, known to the Chinese as 烏散特勤灑 ''Wusan Teqin Sa'' "Tegin Shah of Khorasan") was a king of the Turk Shahis, a dynasty of Western Turk or mixed Western Turk-Hephthalite origin who ...

), who ruled over the

kingdom from his capital in

Kabul Kabul is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. Located in the eastern half of the country, it is also a municipality, forming part of the Kabul Province. The city is divided for administration into #Districts, 22 municipal districts. A ...

.Andre Wink, '' Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World'', Vol.1, (Brill, 1996), 115;"''"The Zunbils of the early Islamic period and the Kabulshahs were almost certainly epigoni of the southern-Hephthalite rulers of Zabul.''" The Zunbils are described as having Turkish troops in their service by Arabic sources like ''

Tarikh al-Tabari The ''History of the Prophets and Kings'' ( ''Tārīkh al-Rusul wa al-Mulūk''), more commonly known as ''Tarikh al-Tabari'' () or ''Tarikh-i Tabari'' or ''The History of al-Tabari '' () is an Arabic-language historical chronicle completed by the ...

'' and ''

Tarikh-i Sistan The ''Tarikh-i Sistan'' (''History of Sistan'') is an anonymous Persian-language history of the region of Sistan, in modern south-eastern Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country i ...

''. However the term "Turk" was used in an inaccurate and loose way. The faith of this community has not been researched as much. According to the interpretation of Chinese sources by Marquarts and de Groots in 1915, the king of Ts'ao is said to have worn a crown with a golden fish head and was related to the Sogdians. The Temple of the Zun was recognizable by a large fish skeleton on display; this would indicate a related merchantry deity.H. Miyakawa und A. Kollautz: ''Ein Dokument zum Fernhandel zwischen Byzanz und China zur Zeit Theophylakts'' In: ''Byzantinische Zeitschrift'', S. 14 (Anhang). De Gruyter Januar 1984. . In addition to that Marquarts states the Zunbils to have worshipped a solar deity which might have been connected to Aditya (

Surya Surya ( ; , ) is the Sun#Dalal, Dalal, p. 399 as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchaya ...

). However, according to

Shōshin Kuwayama Shōshin Kuwayama (桑山正進 ''Kuwayama Shōshin'', born September 8, 1938) is a Japanese historian and archaeologist. He has been Professor Emeritus at the Institute for Research in the Humanities at Kyoto University, and is credited with contr ...

there was a clear dichotomy between worshipers of the Hindu god Surya and followers of Zhun. This is exemplified by the conflict between Surya and Zhun followers, which led to the followers of Zhun migrating southwards towards

Zabulistan Zabulistan (, ''Zābolistān'', ''Zāwulistān'' or simply ), is an ancient and medieval name for a historical region that included mainly southeastern region ( Zabol) of Iran and some parts of what is now southern Afghanistan. By the tenth ce ...

from Kapisa. According to André Wink the god Zhun was primarily

Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...

, though parallels have also been noted with pre-Buddhist religious and monarchy practices in

Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...

and had Zoroastrian influence in its ritual. Other scholars such as H. Schaeder and N. Sims-William have connected it with

Zurvan Zurvanism is a fatalistic religious movement of Zoroastrianism in which the divinity Zurvan is a first principle (primordial creator deity) who engendered equal-but-opposite twins, Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu. Zurvanism is also known as "Zur ...

. Their territory included between what is now the city of

Zaranj Zaranj ( Persian/Pashto/) is a city in southwestern Afghanistan, which has a population of 160,902 people as of 2015. It is the capital of Nimruz Province and is linked by highways with Lashkargah and Kandahar to the east, Farah to the north an ...

in southwestern Afghanistan and

Kabulistan Kabulistan ( Persian: کابلستان) is a historical regional name referring to the territory that is centered on present-day Kabul Province of Afghanistan. By the 10th century, Ibn Khordadbeh and the Hudud al-'Alam report the southern part ...

in the northeast, with

Zamindawar Zamindawar is a historical region of Afghanistan. It is a very large and fertile valley the main sources for irrigation is the Helmand River. Zamindawar is located in the greater territory of northern Helmand and encompasses the approximate area of ...

and

Ghazni Ghazni (, ), historically known as Ghaznayn () or Ghazna (), also transliterated as Ghuznee, and anciently known as Alexandria in Opiana (), is a city in southeastern Afghanistan with a population of around 190,000 people. The city is strategica ...

serving as their capitals. In the south their territory reached at times the cities of Rakhwad ( al-Rukhkhaj) and Bost (near

Kandahar Kandahar is a city in Afghanistan, located in the south of the country on Arghandab River, at an elevation of . It is Afghanistan's second largest city, after Kabul, with a population of about 614,118 in 2015. It is the capital of Kandahar Pro ...

). The title Zunbil can be traced back to the

Middle-Persian Middle Persian, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg (Inscriptional Pahlavi, Inscriptional Pahlavi script: , Manichaean script: , Avestan script: ) in its later form, is a Western Iranian languages#Middle Iranian, Middle Iranian langu ...

original Zūn-dātbar, 'Zun the Justice-giver'. The geographical name Zamindawar would also reflect this, from Middle Persian 'Zamin-i dātbar' (Land of the Justice-giver).

Zabulistan under the Turks

During more than two centuries of their rule, the

Tokhara Yabghus The Tokhara Yabghus or Yabghus of Tokharistan () were a dynasty of Western Turks, Western Turk–Hephthalites, Hephthalite sub-kings with the title "Yabghus", who ruled from 625 CE in the area of Tokharistan north and south of the Amu Darya, Oxus ...

, followed by the

Turk Shahis The Turk Shahis were a dynasty of Western Turk, or mixed Turco-Hephthalite origin, that ruled from Kabul and Kapisa to Gandhara in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. They may have been of Khalaj ethnicity."The new rulers of Kabul, who according to ...

and the Zunbils were consistently an obstacle to the eastward expansion of Muslims forces.

Early Arab incursions in Zabulistan

Rashiduns

About 643-644 AD, the Arabs raided Sistan for the first time, and then started to attack the Turkic territory from the southwest. In 653-4 AD, an army of around 6,000 Arabs was led by general Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura of the

Rashidun Caliphate The Rashidun Caliphate () is a title given for the reigns of first caliphs (lit. "successors") — Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali collectively — believed to Political aspects of Islam, represent the perfect Islam and governance who led the ...

, and they arrived to the shrine of Zoon in Zamindawar. It is reported that Samura "broke off a hand of the idol and plucked out the rubies which were its eyes in order to persuade the

marzbān Marzbān, or Marzpān (Middle Persian: 𐭬𐭫𐭱𐭰𐭠𐭭𐭯 transliteration: mrzwpn, derived from Middle Persian: 𐭬𐭫𐭱 ''marz'' "border, boundary" and the Middle Persian suffix: 𐭡𐭭𐭯 ''-pān'' "guardian"; Modern Persian: ...

of Sīstān of the god's worthlessness." Samura explained to the marzbān: "my intention was to show you that this idol can do neither any harm nor good."

Umayyad Caliphate

Circa 665 AD, the Arabs under Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura, a general of the

Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a member o ...

and caliphal governor of Sijistan, captured Kabul for the first time, critically weakening the

Nezak Huns The Nezak Huns ( Pahlavi: 𐭭𐭩𐭰𐭪𐭩 ''nycky''), also Nezak Shahs, was a significant principality in the south of the Hindu Kush region of South Asia from circa 484 to 665 CE. Despite being traditionally identified as the last of the ...

. But the Turkic ruler

was soon able to mount a counter-offensive and repulse the Arabs, taking back the areas of Kabul and

(around

), as well as the region of

Arachosia Arachosia (; ), or Harauvatis ( ), was a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Mainly centred around the Arghandab River, a tributary of the Helmand River, it extended as far east as the Indus River. The satrapy's Persian-language name is the et ...

as far as

, and founding the new dynasty of the

circa 665 AD. Rutbil is first mentioned to have existed during his time, as his earliest mention in Arab sources dates to 666 CE. Rutbil may have been the brother or nephew of Barha Tegin, and may have been appointed as the governor in

by Barha Tegin after he conquered the region from

Ghar-ilchi Ghar-ilchi (Chinese: 曷撷支 ''Hexiezhi'', also transliterated as ''Ko-chieh-chih'', 653-661 CE) was, according to Chinese and Arab sources, a local king of Kapisi and the twelfth and last known ruler of the Nezak Huns. Ghar-ilchi may have been ...

. Rutbil and the king of Kabul campaigned together against the Arabs after Abdur Rahman ibn Samura was replaced as the governor of

Sistan Sistān (), also known as Sakastān (, , current name: Zabol) and Sijistan (), is a historical region in south-eastern Iran and extending across the borders of present-day south-western Afghanistan, and south-western Pakistan. Mostly correspond ...

Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi () was an Arab military leader, who served the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates. Biography In 651, Rabi ibn Ziyad invaded the Sasanian province of Sakastan. After some time, he reached Zaliq, a border town between Kirm ...

upon assuming governorship in 671 CE attacked Rutbil at Bost, and drove him to al-Rukhkhaj. Rabi's successor Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra continued the war upon being appointed in 673 CE, leading Rutbil to negotiate a peace treaty for both

and

Zabul Zabul (Pashto/Dari: ) is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, located in the south of the country. It has a population of 249,000. Zabul became an independent province from neighbouring Kandahar in 1963. Historically, it was part of the Zab ...

, in which the governor of

acknowledged control of these territories by Rutbil and the King of Kabul.

Establishment of the Zunbils (680 CE)

Around the time the first ruler of the Turk Shahis

died, his dynasty split into two kingdoms. From 680 AD,

became the king of the

, and ruled the area from

Gandhara Gandhara () was an ancient Indo-Aryan people, Indo-Aryan civilization in present-day northwest Pakistan and northeast Afghanistan. The core of the region of Gandhara was the Peshawar valley, Peshawar (Pushkalawati) and Swat valleys extending ...

as well as Zabulistan. His title was "Khorasan Tegin Shah" (meaning "Tegin, King of the East"), and he was known in Chinese sources as ''Wusan teqin sa''. His grand title probably refers to his resistance to the peril of the

Umayyad caliph The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a member ...

from the west. In 680-683 AD, Rutbil split from his brother the Shahi of Kabul according to

al-Tabari Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Jarīr ibn Yazīd al-Ṭabarī (; 839–923 CE / 224–310 AH), commonly known as al-Ṭabarī (), was a Sunni Muslim scholar, polymath, historian, exegete, jurist, and theologian from Amol, Tabaristan, present- ...

, and established the Zunbil dynasty, paying temporary allegiance to Salm ibn Ziyad, the Arab governor of Sistan. The area of Zabulistan came to be ruled by Rutbil, also spelled Zibil or Jibul (from Turkic: ''Iltäbär'' "Commander"). The relationship between the two relatives was at times antagonistic, but they fought together against Arab incursions. Rubtil issued coins derived from Sassanian prototypes, with a

Bactrian script Bactrian (, , meaning "Iranian") was an Eastern Iranian language formerly spoken in the Central Asian region of Bactria (present-day Afghanistan) and used as the official language of the Kushan and the Hephthalite empires. Name It was long thoug ...

legend on the obverse, a

Pahlavi script Pahlavi may refer to: Iranian royalty *Seven Parthian clans, ruling Parthian families during the Sasanian Empire *Pahlavi dynasty, the ruling house of Imperial State of Persia/Iran from 1925 until 1979 ** Reza Shah Pahlavi (1878–1944), Shah of ...

legend on the reverse, and a short

Brahmi script Brahmi ( ; ; ISO 15919, ISO: ''Brāhmī'') is a writing system from ancient India. "Until the late nineteenth century, the script of the Aśokan (non-Kharosthi) inscriptions and its immediate derivatives was referred to by various names such as ...

legend in the name of Śrī Vākhudevaḥ ("His Highness the Majestic Lord"): Sahi Tigin

According to Anthony McNicoll, "the Zunbils ruled in the

area for nearly 250 years until the late 9th century AD". Their main capital Zamindawar was located in the present-day

Helmand Province Helmand (Pashto language, Pashto/Dari language, Dari: ; ), also known as Hillmand, in ancient times, as Hermand and Hethumand, is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, in the south of the country. It is the largest province by area, covering ...

. The shrine of Zoon was located about three miles south of

Musa Qala Musa Qala (; "Fortress of Moses") is a town and the district centre of Musa Qala District in Helmand Province, Afghanistan. It is located at and at an altitude of 1,043 m in the valley of Musa Qala River in the central western part of the distr ...

in Helmand, which may still be traced today. Some believe that the Sunagir temple mentioned by the famous Chinese traveler

Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...

in 640 AD pertains to this exact house of worship.

Umayyad Caliphate offensives (698-700 CE)

In 698 Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra, governor of Sijistan and a military commander of the

, led an 'Army of Destruction' against the Zunbils. He was defeated and was forced to offer a large tribute, give hostages including three of his sons, and take an oath not to invade the territory of the Zunbils again. About 700,

Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf Abu Muhammad al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf ibn al-Hakam ibn Abi Aqil al-Thaqafi (; ), known simply as al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf (), was the most notable governor who served the Umayyad Caliphate. He began his service under Caliph Abd al-Malik (), who successiv ...

appointed

Ibn al-Ash'ath Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath (; died 704), commonly known as Ibn al-Ash'ath after his grandfather, was a prominent Arab nobleman and military commander during the Umayyad Caliphate, most notable for leading a failed rebellion aga ...

as commander of a huge Iraqi army, the so-called "Peacock Army", to subdue the troublesome principality of

.Hugh Kennedy,The Great Arab Conquests', 2007, pages 194-198 During the campaign, al-Hajjaj's overbearing behaviour caused Ibn al-Ash'ath and the army to rebel. After patching up an agreement with the Zunbils, the army started on its march back to Iraq. On the way, a mutiny against al-Hajjaj developed into a full-fledged anti-Umayyad rebellion. The Arabs regularly claimed nominal overlordship over the Zunbils, and in 711

Qutayba ibn Muslim Abū Ḥafṣ Qutayba ibn Abī Ṣāliḥ Muslim ibn ʿAmr al-Bāhilī (; 669–715/6) was an Arab commander of the Umayyad Caliphate who became governor of Khurasan and distinguished himself in the conquest of Transoxiana during the reign o ...

managed to force them to pay tribute. In 725–726, Yazid ibn al-Ghurayf, governor of

failed to do so. The Arabs would not be able to obtain tribute from the Zunbils again until 769 CE, when Ma'n b. Za'ida al-Shaybanl defeated them near

Khuras and his son Alkhis, lords of Ghazni (714-715 CE)

The Bactrian inscription of Tang-i Safedak, dated to around 714/15 CE, mentions the dedication of a stupa by

Alkhis Alkhis was a ruler of the area of Zabul, with its capital at Gazan (Ghazni) in Afghanistan in the early decades of the 8th century CE. He was the son of Khuras. He expanded his territory as far north of the region of Band-e Amir, west of Bamiy ...

, son of Khuras, lord of "Gazan", thought to be

. Alkhis is considered as the patron of the second period of florescence of the Buddhist sanctuary of

Tapa Sardar Tepe Sardar, also Tapa Sardar or Tepe-e-Sardar, is an ancient Buddhist monastery in Afghanistan. It is located near Ghazni, and it dominates the Dasht-i Manara plain. The site displays two major artistic phases, an Hellenistic art, Hellenistic phas ...

, characterized in this period by the creation of hybrid Sinicized-Indian Buddhist art.

Vassalage to the Yabghus of Tokharistan

According to Chinese sources, in particular the chronicles of the ''

Cefu Yuangui ''Cefu Yuangui'' (冊府元龜) is the largest '' leishu'' (encyclopedia) compiled during the Chinese Song dynasty (AD 960–1279). It was the last of the '' Four Great Books of Song'', the previous three having been published in the 10th ce ...

'', the Turks in Kabul were vassals of the Yabghus of

Tokharistan Tokharistan (formed from "Tokhara" and the suffix ''-stan'' meaning "place of" in Persian) is a historical name used by Islamic sources in the early Middle Ages to refer to the area which was known as Bactria in Ancient Greek sources. By the 6 ...

. When a young brother of the Yabghu Pantu Nili, named Puluo (僕羅 ''Púluó'' in Chinese sources), visited the court of the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

Xi'an Xi'an is the list of capitals in China, capital of the Chinese province of Shaanxi. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong plain, the city is the third-most populous city in Western China after Chongqing and Chengdu, as well as the most populou ...

in 718 AD, he gave an account of the military forces in the Tokharistan region. Puluo described the power of "the kings of Tokharistan", explaining that "Two hundred and twelve kingdoms, governors and prefects" recognise the authority of the Yabghus, and that it has been so since the time of his grandfather, that is, probably since the time of the establishment of the Yabghus of Tokharistan. This account also shows that the Yabghu of Tokharistan ruled a vast area circa 718 AD, formed of the territories north and south of the

, including the areas of

and

. Finally, Puluo reaffirmed the loyalty of Yabghu Pantu Nili towards the Tang dynasty. Part of the Chinese entry for this account by Puluo is:

Chinese influence

Tang dynasty investiture

A few Zunbil rulers are named in Chinese sources, especially ''Shiquer'' or ''Zigil'' (Chinese:誓屈爾 ''Shìqū'ér''), ruler of Zabulistan from 720 CE and for a few years until 738. A Chinese account from the ''

Tangshu The ''Old Book of Tang'', or simply the ''Book of Tang'', is the first classic historical work about the Tang dynasty, comprising 200 chapters, and is one of the Twenty-Four Histories. Originally compiled during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingd ...

'' mentions how

(Chinese: 誓䫻 ''Shìyù'') was a vassal to the Kabul Shah around 710-720 CE, and how the Zunbil ruler, named "Shiquer", was recognized by the Chinese court in 720 CE. Shiquer received the title of ''Gedaluozhi Xielifa'' (Chinese: 葛達羅支頡利發). The word "''Geluodazhi''" in this extract (Chinese: 葛罗达支, pronounced in

Early Middle Chinese Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the ''Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The S ...

: kat-la-dat-tcǐe), is thought to be a transliteration of the ethnonym Khalaj. ''Xielifa'' is the known Chinese transcription of the Turkish "

Iltäbär An elteber ( or ''(h)elitbär''; Chinese 頡利發 ''xié-lì-fā'' < EMCh: *''γεt-li^H-puat'') was a

", hence Shiquer was "Iltäbär of the Khalaj":

Visit by Hyecho (726 CE)

In 726 CE, the Korean Buddhist monk

Hyecho Hyecho (; 704–787) was a Korean Buddhist monk from Silla, one of Korea's Three Kingdoms. He is primarily remembered for his account of his travels in medieval India, the . Life Hyecho studied esoteric Buddhism in Tang China, initially under � ...

visited Zabulistan (谢䫻国 ''Xiėyùguó'') and recorded that Kabul and Zabul were ruled by Turkic kings, who followed Buddhism. According to him, the King of Kabul was the uncle of the king of Zabul.

Chinese artistic influences (680-750 CE)

Chinese artistic influences, on top of nomical political influence, are discernable in the artistic creations under the Zunbils around that time, as seen in the Buddhist monastery of Tepe Sardar. During the period from 680 to 720 CE, essentially Indian post-

Gupta Gupta () is a common surname of Indian origin, meaning "guardian" or "protector". Origins and distribution The name is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means "guardian" or "protector". According to historian ...

start to blend with Chinese stylistic influences, "a Chinese touch" discernable in Buddhist works of art. A full-blown "Chinese phase" is attributed to the period from 720 to 750 CE, corresponding to the last major phase of construction and decorations of Buddhist monuments before the Arab conquests. This construction period was possibly marked by the patronage of

, a contemporary ruler of the

area who was probably of the same ethnicity as the nearby

and a member of the Zunbils, or his successors. The period sees a marked evolution in the facial types of the statues, with the Chinese-Indian traits of the previous period moving markedly towards

styles, and clearly following Tang prototypes. Such phenomenon is also seen in the site of Adzina Tepe. It is thought that Buddhism was particularly strong in China during the rule of Empress Wu Zhao (624-705 CE), and that, together the several missions of Chinese pilgrims to Afghanistan and India, Chinese monks settled in

from around 700 CE. This activity mirrored the active development of monasteries in

Xinjiang Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...

during the 7th-8th centuries, and highlight a broad territorial unity of Buddhist kingdoms in Western Central Asia at that time, based on intense exchanges and a westward influence of Chinese Buddhism and artistic styles. The influence of Chinese artistic styles vanishes after the Anshi rebellion.

Abbasid Caliphate claim to overlordship (750 CE)

Arabic sources recount that, after the

Abbasids The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes i ...

came to power in 750, the Zunbils made submissions to the third

Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 C ...

Caliph A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...

al-Mahdi Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Manṣūr (; 744 or 745 – 785), better known by his regnal name al-Mahdī (, "He who is guided by God"), was the third Abbasid Caliph who reigned from 775 to his death in 785. He succeeded his ...

(r. 775–785), but these appear to have been nominal acts, and the people of the region continued to resist Muslim rule. The Muslim historian

Ya'qubi ʾAbū al-ʿAbbās ʾAḥmad bin ʾAbī Yaʿqūb bin Ǧaʿfar bin Wahb bin Waḍīḥ al-Yaʿqūbī (died 897/8), commonly referred to simply by his nisba al-Yaʿqūbī, was an Arab Muslim geographer. Life Ya'qubi was born in Baghdad to a fam ...

(died 897/8) in his ''Ta'rikh'' ("History"), recounts that al-Mahdi asked for, and apparently obtained, the submission of various

Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...

n rulers, including that of the Zunbils. The original account by Ya'qubi reads: In 769 CE, the Arabs were again able to obtain tribute from the Zunbils after nearly half a century, when Ma'n b. Za'ida al-Shaybanl defeated them near

. Arab destructions are documented around 795 CE, as the Muslim writer Kitāb al-buldān records the destruction of a ''Šāh Bahār'' (“Temple of the King”), thought to be Tepe Sardar, at that time: he recounts that the Arabs attacked the ''Šāh Bahār'', "in which were idols worshipped by the people. They destroyed and burnt them".

End of the Turk Shahis (822 CE)

In 815 CE, the

led by caliph

Al-Ma'mun Abū al-ʿAbbās Abd Allāh ibn Hārūn al-Maʾmūn (; 14 September 786 – 9 August 833), better known by his regnal name al-Ma'mun (), was the seventh Abbasid caliph, who reigned from 813 until his death in 833. His leadership was marked by t ...

defeated the Kabul branch of the

s in 815 CE, in what was essentially a political retribution: hoping to take advantage of the

Great Abbasid Civil War The Fourth Fitna, Fourth Muslim Civil War, or Great Abbasid Civil War resulted from the conflict between the brothers al-Amin and al-Ma'mun over the succession to the throne of the Abbasid Caliphate. Their father, Caliph Harun al-Rashid, had name ...

(811-819 AD), the Turk Shahi ruler, named "Pati Dumi" in Arab sources, had invaded parts of

Khorasan KhorasanDabeersiaghi, Commentary on Safarnâma-e Nâsir Khusraw, 6th Ed. Tehran, Zavvâr: 1375 (Solar Hijri Calendar) 235–236 (; , ) is a historical eastern region in the Iranian Plateau in West and Central Asia that encompasses western and no ...

. The Turk Shahis not only had to convert to Islam but also had to cede key cities and regions. Another campaign against the Gandhara branch seem to have followed soon, with the Caliphate reaching

Indus river The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayas, Himalayan river of South Asia, South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in the Western Tibet region of China, flows northw ...

, and imposing a critical defeat. A new dynasty, the

Hindu Shahi The Hindu Shahis, also referred to as the Kabul Shahis and Uḍi Śāhis, were a dynasty established between 843 CE and 1026 CE. They endured multiple waves of conquests for nearly two centuries and their core territory was described as having c ...

dynasty, took over in Gandhara and Kabul in 822 CE. The Zunbils were unaffected by

's raids and continued to rule for about two more decades, before getting embroiled in the conflict to eventual extinction.

Saffarids Conquest (870 CE)

The Zunbils were finally defeated in 870 AD by the Muslim conqueror Yaqub bin Laith al-Saffar (r. 861–879 AD, founder of the

Saffarid dynasty The Saffarid dynasty () was a Persianate dynasty of eastern Iranian origin that ruled over parts of Persia, Greater Khorasan, and eastern Makran from 861 to 1002. One of the first indigenous Persian dynasties to emerge after the Islamic conqu ...

), who conquered the entire Zunbil territory from his base in Sistan. Yaqub bin Laith al-Saffar started his eastern conquests in 870/871 CE, when he marched against the Kharijites of

Herat Herāt (; Dari/Pashto: هرات) is an oasis city and the third-largest city in Afghanistan. In 2020, it had an estimated population of 574,276, and serves as the capital of Herat Province, situated south of the Paropamisus Mountains (''Se ...

, and defeated them. He then marched towards Karukh, and defeated another Khariji leader who was named Abd al-Rahman. His army would then march to

Ghazna Ghazni (, ), historically known as Ghaznayn () or Ghazna (), also transliterated as Ghuznee, and anciently known as Alexandria in Opiana (), is a city in southeastern Afghanistan with a population of around 190,000 people. The city is strategica ...

, conquering the Zunbils, and further to

Bamyan Bamyan (), also spelled Bamian or Bamiyan, is the capital of Bamyan Province in central Afghanistan. Its population of approximately 100,000 people makes it the largest city in Hazarajat. Bamyan is at an altitude of about above sea level. The ...

and

, pushing the

Hindu Shahis The Hindu Shahis, also referred to as the Kabul Shahis and Uḍi Śāhis, were a dynasty established between 843 CE and 1026 CE. They endured multiple waves of conquests for nearly two centuries and their core territory was described as having c ...

to the East, conquering these territories in the name of Islam by appointing Muslim governors. From there they moved to north of the

and by 870 AD the whole of Khorasan was brought under Saffarid control. The Panjshir Valley was now under Ya'qub's control, which made him able to mint silver coins. According to

C.E. Bosworth Clifford Edmund Bosworth FBA (29 December 1928 – 28 February 2015) was an English historian and Orientalist, specialising in Arabic and Iranian studies. Life Bosworth was born on 29 December 1928 in Sheffield, West Riding of Yorkshire (n ...

, the Saffarids achieved, for the first time, Muslim expansion in eastern Afghanistan, after more than two centuries of plundering raids by the Muslim governors of

and fierce resistance from the rulers of the region. The

, setting up defenses in

, continued the resistance to the eastern expansion of Islam until circa 1026 CE.

Religion

In his travel diaries, the Chinese monk

reported in the early 700s that the temple of the Indo-Iranian god Zun/Sun(Surya) was in the region. He also reported there were numerous Buddhist stupas in the area of Zabul. There were dozens of Hindu temples and hundreds of Buddhist monasteries. In addition , drawing many pilgrims. According to Wink, it was clear that Zunbils ruled over a predominately Indian realm.

Buddhism

In 726 CE, the Korean Buddhist monk

visited Zabulistan (谢䫻国 ''Xiėyùguó'') and recorded that Kabul and Zabul were ruled by Turkic kings, who followed Buddhism. The last phase of the

Buddhist monastery in

, dates to the time of the Zunbils.

Zhun

The Zunbils worshiped a deity called Zhūn (or Zūn), from whom they derived their name. He is represented with flames radiating from his head on coins. Statues were adorned with gold and used rubies for eyes.

Huen Tsang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contribu ...

calls him "sunagir". The origin and nature of Zhun is disputed. M. Shenkar in his study comes to the conclusion that Zhun was possibly connected to the deity of the river Oxus, the modern river Amudarya. Furthermore, he holds it most likely that Zhun was the greatest deity worshiped in Zabulistan. F. Grenet believes that Zhun might have been connected with the Iranian solar deity

Mithra Mithra ( ; ) is an ancient Iranian deity ('' yazata'') of covenants, light, oaths, justice, the Sun, contracts, and friendship. In addition to being the divinity of contracts, Mithra is also a judicial figure, an all-seeing protector of Truth ( ...

. Zhun has been linked with the

Hindu god Hindu deities are the gods and goddesses in Hinduism. Deities in Hinduism are as diverse as its traditions, and a Hindu can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, even agnostic, atheistic, or humanist. Julius J. L ...

Aditya Aditya may refer to: * Ādityas, a group of Hindu deities * An alternative name for Surya Surya ( ; , ) is the Sun#Dalal, Dalal, p. 399 as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta t ...

Multan Multan is the List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population, fifth-most populous city in the Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab province of Pakistan. Located along the eastern bank of the Chenab River, it is the List of cities in Pakistan by populatio ...

, pre-Buddhist religious and kingship practices of

as well as

Shaivism Shaivism (, , ) is one of the major Hindu denominations, Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Para Brahman, supreme being. It is the Hinduism#Demographics, second-largest Hindu sect after Vaishnavism, constituting about 385 million H ...

. Some scholars have considered the cult to be neither Buddhist nor Zoroastrian, but primarily Hindu. Scholars point out the connections between the deity Zhun/Zun and

Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...

. His shrine lay on a sacred mountain in

and another at a temple in Sakkawand. Originally he appears to have been brought at Zamindawar by Hepthalites, displacing an earlier god on the same site. Parallels have been noted with the pre-Buddhist monarchy of

, next to

Zoroastrian Zoroastrianism ( ), also called Mazdayasnā () or Beh-dīn (), is an Iranian religion centred on the Avesta and the teachings of Zarathushtra Spitama, who is more commonly referred to by the Greek translation, Zoroaster ( ). Among the wo ...

influence on its ritual. Whatever his origins, he was certainly superimposed on a mountain and on a pre-existing mountain god while merging with Shaiva doctrines of worship.

Zurvan hypothesis

Other scholars however have connected Zun with the Sassanid Zoroastrian deity Zurvān, the deity of time. According to Gulman S, its Afghan followers were, most probably, initially Zoroastrians. Mention of Žun and its devotees disappeared with the end of Žunbil dynasty of Zabulistan in 870. Its followers, according to Ibn Athir, accepted Islam. According to N. Sims-Williams: Ulf Jäger states: We should interpret "Zhun" as the name of the ancient Iranian deity of time, "Zurwan".

References

Sources

* *

External links

Zunbil
in

Encyclopædia Britannica The is a general knowledge, general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, ...

Notes

:1.{{note, a''"Xuanzang's story is simple , but suggests a historical background:there happened a conflict between the two religious groups, the Surya group and the Zhuna group"''. History of the Turkic peoples Dynasties of Afghanistan Medieval history of Afghanistan Hephthalites