''Xanthosoma'' is a genus of
flowering plant
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed with ...
s in the arum family,
Araceae
The Araceae are a family of monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe (or leaf-like bract). Also ...
. The genus is native to tropical
America
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
but widely cultivated and naturalized in other tropical regions.
[Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]
/ref> Several are grown for their starch
Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants for energy storage. Worldwide, it is the most common carbohydrate in human diet ...
y corm
Corm, bulbo-tuber, or bulbotuber is a short, vertical, swollen, underground plant stem that serves as a storage organ that some plants use to survive winter or other adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat (perennation).
The word ''c ...
s, an important food staple
A staple food, food staple, or simply staple, is a Human food, food that is eaten often and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet (nutrition), diet for an individual or a population group, supplying a large ...
of tropical regions, known variously as ''malanga'', ''otoy'', ''otoe'', cocoyam (or new cocoyam), ''tannia'', ''tannier'', ''yautía'', ''macabo'', ''ocumo'', ''macal'', ''taioba'', ''dasheen'', ''quequisque'', ''ʻape'' and (in Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea, officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is an island country in Oceania that comprises the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and offshore islands in Melanesia, a region of the southwestern Pacific Ocean n ...
) as Singapore taro (''taro kongkong''). Many other species, including especially '' Xanthosoma roseum'', are used as ornamental plant
Ornamental plants or ''garden plants'' are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars th ...
s; in popular horticultural literature these species may be known as ‘ape due to resemblance to the true Polynesian ʻape, ''Alocasia macrorrhizos
''Alocasia macrorrhizos'' is a species of flowering plant in the arum family (Araceae) that it is native to rainforests of Maritime Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Queensland and has long been cultivated in South Asia, the Philippines, many Pac ...
'', or as elephant ear from visual resemblance of the leaf
A leaf (: leaves) is a principal appendage of the plant stem, stem of a vascular plant, usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leav ...
to an elephant
Elephants are the largest living land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant ('' Loxodonta africana''), the African forest elephant (''L. cyclotis''), and the Asian elephant ('' Elephas maximus ...
's ear. Sometimes the latter name is also applied to members in the closely related genera '' Caladium'', ''Colocasia
''Colocasia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae, native to Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Some species are widely cultivated and naturalized in other tropical and subtropical regions.
The names elephant-ear and ...
'' (taro
Taro (; ''Colocasia esculenta'') is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, stems and Petiole (botany), petioles. Taro corms are a ...
), and '' Alocasia''.
The leaves of most ''Xanthosoma'' species are long, sagittate (arrowhead-shaped) or subdivided into three or as many as 18 segments. Unlike the leaves of ''Colocasia'', those of ''Xanthosoma'' are usually not peltate- the upper v-notch extends into the point of attachment of the leaf petiole to the blade.
Reproduction
The inflorescence in ''Xanthosoma'' is composed of a spadix with pistillate flowers at the base, a belt of sterile flowers offered as a reward for pollinators in the middle and staminate flowers on the upper part. Prior to opening, the inflorescence
In botany, an inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a plant's Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a system of branches. An inflorescence is categorized on the basis of the arrangement of flowers on a mai ...
is enclosed within a leaf-like spathe
In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale.
Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves in size, color, shape or texture. They also look ...
. When the inflorescence is ready to open, the upper part of the spathe opens and exposes the staminate area of the spadix; the basal area of the spathe remains closed, forming a spacious chamber (i.e., the spathe tube) that encloses the pistillate and sterile flowers ().
The inflorescences last for two nights and are protogynous in some, but not all species.Cyclocephala
''Cyclocephala'' is a genus of scarab beetles from the subfamily Dynastinae (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae). Beetles of this genus occur from southeastern Canada to Argentina, India and the West Indies.
Adults of this genus are nocturnal or crepuscu ...
'' spp.). Dynastines arrive covered with pollen from another inflorescence and remain in the spathe tube for 24 hours, pollinating the pistillate flowers as they feed on the sterile area of the spadix. On the second night, they come out of the tube and walk over the staminate flowers, getting covered with pollen, and then flying to a recently opened inflorescence nearby. ().
Fruit maturation takes several months. Fruits start to develop within the shelter of the spathe tube. When the infructescence
is mature, in some species, it arches back and downwards. In other species, it stays erect. Then, the tissue of the spathe tube rolls outwards, exhibiting the bright orange fruits and the velvety pink inner spathe surface.
Taxonomy
Species
The following species are accepted:
Deprecated
*'' Phyllotaenium lindenii'' André (as ''X. lindenii'' (André) Engl.)
Etymology
The name is derived from the Greek
Greek may refer to:
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
words (), meaning 'yellow', and (), meaning 'body'. It refers to the stigma or yellow inner tissues.
Uses
Domestication of ''Xanthosoma'' species (especially '' X. sagittifolium'' but also ''X. atrovirens'', ''X. violaceum'', ''X. maffaffa'' and others) is thought to have originated in northern lowland South America
South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a considerably smaller portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It can also be described as the southern Subregion#Americas, subregion o ...
, then spread to the Antilles
The Antilles is an archipelago bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the south and west, the Gulf of Mexico to the northwest, and the Atlantic Ocean to the north and east.
The Antillean islands are divided into two smaller groupings: the Greater An ...
and Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area that begins in the southern part of North America and extends to the Pacific coast of Central America, thus comprising the lands of central and southern Mexico, all of Belize, Guatemala, El S ...
. Today, ''Xanthosoma'' is still grown in all those regions, but is especially popular in Cuba
Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...
, the Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean Sea in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean. It shares a Maritime boundary, maritime border with Puerto Rico to the east and ...
and Puerto Rico
; abbreviated PR), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, is a Government of Puerto Rico, self-governing Caribbean Geography of Puerto Rico, archipelago and island organized as an Territories of the United States, unincorporated territo ...
, where it is used in ''alcapurria
''Alcapurria'' is a popular fritter dish from Puerto Rico.
Origin
It may have influence from Middle Eastern ''kibbeh'' due to the immigration of Levantine Arabs as well as Armenians throughout Latin America.
Preparation
The dough surrounding ...
s'' or boiled. It is grown in Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago, officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean, comprising the main islands of Trinidad and Tobago, along with several List of islands of Trinidad and Tobago, smaller i ...
, Guyana
Guyana, officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, is a country on the northern coast of South America, part of the historic British West Indies. entry "Guyana" Georgetown, Guyana, Georgetown is the capital of Guyana and is also the co ...
and Jamaica
Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies. At , it is the third-largest island—after Cuba and Hispaniola—of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean. Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, west of Hispaniola (the is ...
to make the popular '' callaloo'' dish, and in St. Kitts and Nevis to make tannia fritter
A fritter is a portion of meat, seafood, fruit, vegetables, or other ingredients which have been Batter (cooking), battered or breading, breaded, or just a portion of dough without further ingredients, that is deep-frying, deep-fried. Fritters ar ...
s.
It is also grown in West Africa
West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...
, now a major producer, where it can be used as a replacement for yams in a popular regional dish called '' fufu''.
''Xanthosoma'' is also grown as a crop in the Philippines
The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...
.
Traditionally, ''Xanthosoma'' has been a subsistence crop with excess sold at local markets, but in the United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, large numbers of Latin American
Latin Americans (; ) are the citizenship, citizens of Latin American countries (or people with cultural, ancestral or national origins in Latin America).
Latin American countries and their Latin American diaspora, diasporas are Metroethnicity, ...
immigrants have created a market for commercial production. In general, production has yet to meet demand in some areas. In Polynesia, ''Alocasia macrorrhizos'' (''‘ape'') was considered a famine food
A famine food or poverty food is any inexpensive or ready available food used to nourish people in times of hunger and starvation, whether caused by extreme poverty, such as during economic depression or war, or by natural disasters such as dro ...
, used only in the event of failure of the much preferred taro
Taro (; ''Colocasia esculenta'') is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, stems and Petiole (botany), petioles. Taro corms are a ...
(''kalo'') crop. After having been introduced to Hawaii in the 1920s from South America, ''Xanthosoma'' has naturalized and has become more common than ''A. macrorrhizos'', and has been given the same name, ''ʻape''.
The typical ''Xanthosoma'' plant has a growing cycle of 9 to 11 months, during which time it produces a large stem called a corm
Corm, bulbo-tuber, or bulbotuber is a short, vertical, swollen, underground plant stem that serves as a storage organ that some plants use to survive winter or other adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat (perennation).
The word ''c ...
, this surrounded by smaller edible ''cormels'' about the size of potato
The potato () is a starchy tuberous vegetable native to the Americas that is consumed as a staple food in many parts of the world. Potatoes are underground stem tubers of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'', a perennial in the nightshade famil ...
es. These cormels (like the corm) are rich in starch. Their taste has been described as earthy and nutty, and they are a common ingredient in soups and stews. They may also be eaten grilled
Grilling is a form of cooking that involves heat applied to the surface of food, commonly from above, below or from the side. Grilling usually involves a significant amount of direct, radiant heat, and tends to be used for cooking meat and v ...
, fried, or purée
A purée (or mash) is cooked food, usually vegetables, fruits or legumes, that has been ground, pressed, blended or sieved to the consistency of a creamy paste or liquid. Purées of specific foods are often known by specific names, e.g., appl ...
d. The young, unfurled leaves of some varieties can be eaten as boiled leafy vegetables or used in soup
Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot – though it is sometimes served chilled – made by cooking or otherwise combining meat or vegetables with Stock (food), stock, milk, or water. According to ''The Oxford Compan ...
s and stew
A stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been Cooking, cooked in Soup, liquid and served in the resultant gravy. Ingredients can include any combination of vegetables and may include meat, especially tougher meats suitable for ...
s, such as the Caribbean ''callaloo''.
Flour made from ''Xanthosoma'' species is hypoallergenic.[Vaneker, K]
The Pomtajer.
Page 216 ''In'': Friedland, S. R., Ed. ''Vegetables: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cooking 2008'': Volume 26 of ''Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery''. Oxford Symposium, 2009.
Gallery
File:Xanthosoma sagittifolium at Kadavoor.jpg, Inflorescence of '' Xanthosoma sagittifolium''
File:Inflo detail.jpg, Inflorescence of ''X. daguense''
File:Xanthosoma pollination.jpg, Beetle pollination in ''X. daguense''
File:Infruc Xanthosoma copy.jpg, Infructescence of ''X. poeppigii'' (Peruvian Amazonas); ''X. daguense'' (Western Cordillera of Los Andes, Colombia)
References
External links
*
*
''Xanthosoma'' spp. at Purdue University, Center for New Crops & Plants Products
{{Taxonbar, from=Q763075
Araceae genera
Root vegetables
Leaf vegetables
Staple foods