Wine packaging and storage

Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented fruit. Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruit and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Wine is most often made from grapes, and the term "wine" generally refers to grape wine when used without any qualification. Even so, wine can be made from a variety of fruit crops, including plum, cherry, pomegranate, blueberry, currant, and elderberry.

Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are major factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from the complex interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the grape's growing environment ( terroir), and the wine production process. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine. These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production.

Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine is from the present-day Georgia (6000 BCE). Later, as Old World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largest wine-producing regions. The top five wine producing countries of 2023 were Italy, France, Spain, the United States and Chile.

Wine has long played an important role in religion. Red wine was associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians, and was used by both the Greek cult of Dionysus and the Romans in their Bacchanalia; Judaism also incorporates it in the Kiddush, and Christianity in the Eucharist. Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Israeli wine cultures are still connected to these ancient roots. Similarly the largest wine regions in Italy, Spain, and France have heritages in connection to sacramental wine, likewise, viticulture traditions in the Southwestern United States started within New Spain as Catholic friars and monks first produced the Mission grape in New Mexico and California.

History

The earliest known traces of wine are from Georgia (). Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest production of wine outside Georgia was relatively later, likely having taken place elsewhere in the Southern Caucasus or the region between Eastern Anatolia and northern Iran. The earliest known winery, from 4100 BCE, is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia.

The spread of wine culture in the Mediterranean was probably due to the influence of the Phoenicians from about 1000 BCE. The wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Industrialized production of wine in ancient Greece began around 600 BCE and spread across the Italian peninsula and to southern Gaul. The ancient Romans further increased the scale of wine production and trade networks, especially in Gaul around the time of the Gallic Wars, and many famous vineyards date from Roman occupation. The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from a vinegar smell, due to the antioxidant effects of sulfur dioxide.

In medieval Europe, Catholic monks grew grapes and made wine for the Eucharist. Monasteries expanded their land holdings over time and established vineyards in many of today's most successful wine regions. Bordeaux was a notable exception, being a purely commercial enterprise serving the Duchy of Aquitaine and by association Britain between the 12th and 15th centuries.

European wine grape traditions were incorporated into New World wine. Mission grapes were brought by Franciscan monks to New Mexico in 1628, beginning the New Mexico wine heritage. These grapes were also brought to California which started the California wine industry. These two regions eventually evolved into the oldest and largest producers, respectively, of wine of the United States.

Etymology

The modern English word "wine" comes from the Old English ''wīn'', descended from the Latin ''vīnum'' and adopted while the latin ''v'' was still pronounced as a modern . The Latin ''vītis'' and ''vīnea'' led to the French , which was subsequently introduced to England during the Norman Conquest, becoming ''wīngeard'' (eventually "vineyard") and "vine".

''vītis'' is related to an Indo-European verb-root meaning to "wind" or "twine", but the origins of ''vīnum'' and ''vīnea'' are unclear. Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in Indo-European languages (e.g. Armenian ''gini'', Ancient Greek οἶνος, Russian вино ), Kartvelian (e.g. Georgian ღვინო ), and Semitic (''*wayn''; Hebrew יין ), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word denoting "wine" in these language families. The Georgian word goes back to Proto-Kartvelian *''ɣwino''-, which is either a borrowing from Proto-Indo-European or the lexeme was specifically borrowed from Proto-Armenian *''ɣʷeinyo''-, whence Armenian ''gini''. An alternative hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes *''ɣwino''-, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root *''ɣun''- ('to bend').

Styles

Wine is made in many ways from different fruits. The term does not typically include drinks made from starches (e.g. beer), honey (mead), apples (cider) or pears ( perry), or a liquid which is subsequently distilled to make liquor. The unqualified term "wine" typically refers to a drink made from fermented grape juice; alcoholic drinks from other fruits are generically called fruit wine.

Most fruits other than grapes lack sufficient fermentable sugars, are overly acidic, and do not have enough nutrients for yeast, necessitating winemaker intervention. They do not typically improve with age, and last less than a year after bottling. Fruit wines are particularly popular in North America and Scandinavia.

The type of grape used and the amount of skin contact while the juice is being extracted determines the color and general style of the wine. The color has no relation to a wine's sweetness—all may be made sweet or dry.

Red

Red wine is made from dark-colored red grape varieties, and the actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black. Red wine gains its color and flavor (notably, tannins) from the grape skin, by allowing the grapes to soak in the extracted juice. The juice from most red grapes is actually pale gray; the red color comes from anthocyanins present in the skin of the grape. Exceptions to this include the family of '' teinturier'' varieties and some versions of Gamay, which actually have red flesh.

White

White wine is typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. However, red grapes may be used to make a white wine if the winemaker separates the skins from the juice quickly after pressing to minimize skin contact, and white champagne commonly uses red grapes in this way. When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor, or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours; any longer leads to astringency and bitterness. Consequently, unlike red wines, whites lack anthocyanins and pigmented tannins.

Rosé

A rosé wine gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.

There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of skin contact after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine. This practise is not allowed in most controlled wine regions, although Champagne is a notable exception.

Orange

Sometimes called amber wines, these are wines made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent end result.

Sparkling

These are effervescent wines, made in any of the above styles (i.e, orange, red, rosé, white). They must undergo secondary fermentation to create carbon dioxide, which remains dissolved in the wine under pressure in the sealed container.

Two common methods of accomplishing this are the traditional method, used for Cava, Champagne, and more expensive sparkling wines, and the Charmat method, used for Prosecco, Asti, and less expensive wines. A hybrid ''transfer method'' is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.

The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the cork, which can be up to .

Dessert

Dessert wines have a high level of residual sugar remaining after fermentation. There are several ways of making sweet wines, the most common being the use of grapes affected by noble rot (e.g. Sauternes), freezing (e.g. icewine), or drying (e.g. Vin Santo).

Production

Viticulture

Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species ''Vitis vinifera'', such as Pinot noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon blanc. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European ''Vitis vinifera'' vines that have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine.

In the context of wine production, is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures. The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique . However, flavor differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film evaporation, and spinning cones.

Vinification

There are a number of different ways of making wine in a modern winery, each decision affecting the final outcome. The first step is harvesting the grapes, the timing of which depends on sugar and acid levels, any diseases affecting the crop, and the weather, among other things. Grapes are harvested by hand or machine, sorted to select those of sufficient quality, and then typically destemmed and crushed to release the juice. The liquid may macerate for a few hours before being pressed and clarified.

The liquid is then transferred to a container for fermentation, which is typically made of oak, stainless steel or concrete, and either open or closed. Yeast is naturally present on grape skins, but most producers choose to use a specific strain to benefit from behaviors such as speed of fermentation, and to control the flavors produced. For red wines, winemakers may choose to encourage the extraction of tannins and flavor from the grape skins by agitating the mixture. Additives such as sugar (to increase the ultimate alcohol content) may be added if permitted by law. Some wines undergo a secondary, malolactic fermentation, in which the harsher malic acid is converted into lactic acid by bacteria. Finally the wine may be filtered to remove microbes and yeast, and sulfites may be added as a preservative.

Containers

Most wines are sold in glass bottles, traditionally sealed with corks. Most cork for this purpose comes from Alentejo, but a decline in quality in the late 20th century and an increase in demand spurred development of alternatives. An increasing number of wine producers use alternative closures such as screwcaps and synthetic "corks". Although alternative closures reduce the risk of cork taint, they have been blamed for such problems as excessive reduction.

Box wines, also known as " bag-in-box" or "cask" wines, are packaged in plastic bags within cardboard boxes. Wine is poured from a tap affixed to the bag. Box wine can stay acceptably fresh for several weeks after opening because the bladder limits contact with air and, thus, slowing the rate of oxidation. Box wine is popular in northern Europe and especially Australia and New Zealand, and is generally used to package inexpensive wines intended for early drinking.

Canned wine is one of the fastest-growing forms of alternative wine packaging on the market.

Environmental considerations of wine packaging reveal the benefits and drawbacks of both bottled and box wines. The glass used to make bottles is a nontoxic, naturally occurring substance that is completely recyclable, but its production may cause air pollution. A ''New York Times'' editorial suggested that box wine, being lighter in package weight, has a reduced carbon footprint from its distribution; however, box-wine plastics, even though possibly recyclable, can be more labor-intensive (and therefore expensive) to process than glass bottles. Canned wine has the advantage of recyclable packaging.

Some wine is sold in stainless steel kegs and is referred to as wine on tap.

Producing countries

Wine grapes grow mainly between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator, although the effects of climate change and advances in viticulture are increasing the area under vine elsewhere. The world's southernmost vineyard is in Sarmiento, Argentina, near the 46th parallel south. The northernmost wine region is Okanagan Valley which reaches up to the 50th parallel north.

Classification

Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g. Bordeaux, Rioja and Chianti), with restrictions on grape varieties, yields and vinification methods, while non-European classifications are generally limited to indications of geographical areas, such as in the American Viticultural Area and Australian Wine Geographical Indications systems. Some New World producers have created voluntary schemes to allow producers to indicate adherence to a stricter set of criteria than required by law, such as Appellation Marlborough Wine in New Zealand and Meritage in the USA.

When one variety of grape is predominantly used, the wine may be marketed as a " varietal" as opposed to a "blended" wine. Similarly, in order to state a vintage, a percentage of the grapes must have been harvested in the declared year.

European classifications

Since 2009, wine from the European Union has been classified under the geographical indicators "protected geographical indication" (PGI) and " protected designation of origin" (PDO), which protect product names in order to promote the products of a specific area and the methods used. National regulations correspond to these designations and subdivide them, such as in Germany's and , Italy's , and the French system of .

The classification of Swiss wine was historically complex due to its system of federalism, but was due to be simplified and made consistent with EU rules . Similar to the EU, regulations regarding English wine denote rules for PGI and PDO products.

Beyond Europe

According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, wine in Canada is an alcoholic drink that is produced by the complete or partial alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes, grape must, products derived solely from fresh grapes, or any combination of them. There are many materials added during the course of the manufacture, such as yeast, concentrated grape juice, dextrose, fructose, glucose or glucose solids, invert sugar, sugar, or aqueous solutions. Calcium sulphate in such quantity that the content of soluble sulphates in the finished wine shall not exceed 0.2 percent weight by volume calculated as potassium sulphate. Calcium carbonate in such quantity that the content of tartaric acid in the finished wine shall not be less than 0.15 percent weight by volume. Also, sulphurous acid, including salts thereof, in such quantity that its content in the finished wine shall not exceed 70 parts per million in the free state, or 350 parts per million in the combined state, calculated as sulphur dioxide. Caramel, amylase and pectinase at a maximum level of use consistent with good manufacturing practice. Prior to final filtration may be treated with a strongly acid cation exchange resin in the sodium ion form, or a weakly basic anion exchange resin in the hydroxyl ion form.

Vintages

For wines produced in the European Union, if a bottle of wine indicates a vintage, then at least 85% of the grapes must have been harvested in that year. In the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a country of origin or American Viticultural Area (AVA; e.g., Sonoma Valley), 95% of its volume must be from grapes harvested in that year. Title 27 of the United States Code, Code of Federal Regulationsbr>§ 4.27
If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the percentage requirement is lowered to 85%.

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine can be significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary dramatically in flavor and quality. Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some vintage wines (e.g. Brunello), are only made in better-than-average years.

For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps wine-makers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years. One recent study suggests that for the average wine drinker, the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.

Forgery and manipulation

Incidents of fraud, such as mislabeling the origin or quality of wines, have resulted in regulations on labeling. "Wine scandals" that have received media attention include:
* The 1985 diethylene glycol wine scandal, in which diethylene glycol was used as a sweetener in some Austrian wines.
* In 1986, methanol (a toxic type of alcohol) was used to alter certain wines manufactured in Italy.
* In 2008, some Italian wines were found to include sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.
* In 2010, some Chinese red wines were found to be adulterated, and as a consequence China's Hebei province shut down nearly 30 wineries.

Consumption

Tasting

Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines contain many chemical compounds similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices. The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar.

Decanting involves pouring the wine into an intermediate container before serving it in a glass, which allows the removal of undesirable sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but aeration in a decanter may benefit younger wines as well. During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink, making it smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally lose their character and flavor intensity with extended aeration.

When tasting wine, individual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules (e.g. esters and terpenes) that grape juice and wine can contain. Experienced tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and flavors that result from other factors in wine-making. Typical intentional flavor elements in wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oak casks rather than the grape itself.

Vertical and horizontal tasting involves a range of vintages within the same grape and vineyard, or the latter in which there is one vintage from multiple vineyards.

"Banana" flavors ( isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are aromas such as "medicinal" or "Band-Aid" ( 4-ethylphenol), "spicy" or "smoky" ( 4-ethylguaiacol), and rotten egg ( hydrogen sulfide). Some varieties can also exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil.

Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air. Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by serving at room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already highly aromatic, like Beaujolais.

The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate by wine enthusiasts and sommeliers, but some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience of tasting certain common wines. White wine should foster a sense of coolness, achieved by serving at "cellar temperature" (). Light red wines drunk young should also be brought to the table at this temperature, where they will quickly rise a few degrees. Red wines are generally perceived best when served at room temperature. However, this does not mean the temperature of the dining room—often around —but rather the coolest room in the house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than the dining room itself. Pinot noir should be brought to the table for serving at and will reach its full bouquet at . Cabernet Sauvignon, zinfandel, and Rhone varieties should be served at and allowed to warm on the table to for best aroma.

Research has shown that the social context and quality of wine can affect the experience of drinking wine.

Global popularity

Wine-consumption-per-person-global-2019.png, Wine consumption per person, 2019
Wine-as-share-alcohol-consumption-global-2016.png, Wine as a share of total alcohol consumption, 2016

Culinary uses

Wine is a popular and important drink that accompanies and enhances a wide range of cuisines, from the simple and traditional stews to the most sophisticated and complex haute cuisines. Wine is often served with dinner. Sweet dessert wines may be served with the dessert course. In fine restaurants in Western countries, wine typically accompanies dinner. At a restaurant, patrons are helped to make good food-wine pairings by the restaurant's sommelier or wine waiter. Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make food–wine pairings. Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment of a meal in wine bars or with a selection of cheeses (at a wine and cheese party). Wines are also used as a theme for organizing various events such as festivals around the world; the city of Kuopio in North Savonia, Finland is known for its annual Kuopio Wine Festivals (''Kuopion viinijuhlat'').

Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in stocks and braising, since its acidity lends balance to rich savoury or sweet dishes. Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient. Unfortified wines exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, the vast majority being between 9% and 16% ABV, with most in the 12.5–14.5% range. Fortified wines (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.

Health effects

Some studies have shown an association between moderate wine consumption and a decrease in cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. However, alcohol consumption is also associated with an increased risk of a number of other health conditions, such as cancer.

The stilbene resveratrol has shown cardioprotective attributes in humans. Grape skins naturally produce resveratrol in response to fungal infection, including exposure to yeast during fermentation. White wine generally contains lower levels of the chemical as it has minimal contact with grape skins during this process. Nevertheless, the potential harms of regular alcohol consumption are considered to outweigh any such benefits.

Research by Pesticide Action Network found that European wines contains large amounts of PFAS ("forever chemicals"), particularly TFA, which have long-term negative health consequences.

Storage

Many wines improve with age; conversely, wines can reduce in quality over time by suboptimal storage conditions, such as being exposed to strong light and heat. Optimal conditions are provided by wine cellars and wine caves, as well as temperature-controlled cabinets.

The ideal temperature for wine storage is with a humidity of 65–70%. Lower humidity levels and temperature fluctuations can dry out or stress a cork over time, allowing oxygen to enter the bottle, which reduces the wine's quality through oxidation. Wines with corks are typically stored horizontally to help keep the cork moist, but this is not necessary for screwcaps.

Collecting

Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of US dollars per bottle, though the broader term "fine wine" covers those typically retailing in excess of US$30–50. " Investment wines" are considered by some to be Veblen goods: those for which demand increases rather than decreases as their prices rise.
Particular selections such as "Verticals", which span multiple vintages of a specific grape and vineyard, may be highly valued. The most notable was a Château d'Yquem 135-year vertical containing every vintage from 1860 to 2003 sold for $1.5 million.
The most common wines purchased for investment include those from Bordeaux and Burgundy; cult wines from Europe and elsewhere; and vintage port.

Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of their victims' relative ignorance of this wine market sector.

Religious significance

Ancient religions

The use of wine in ancient Near Eastern and Ancient Egyptian religious ceremonies was common. Libations often included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus used wine as a sacramental entheogen to induce a mind-altering state.

Judaism

Wine is an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. The '' Kiddush'' is a blessing recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify the Shabbat. On Pesach ( Passover) during the Seder, it is a Rabbinic obligation of adults to drink four cups of wine. In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service. Note that this does not mean that wine is a symbol of blood, a common misconception that contributes to the Christian beliefs of the blood libel.
"It has been one of history's cruel ironies that the blood libel—accusations against Jews using the blood of murdered gentile children for the making of wine and matzot—became the false pretext for numerous pogroms. And due to the danger, those who live in a place where blood libels occur are Halacha, halachically exempted from using red wine, lest it be seized as "evidence" against them."

Christianity

In Christianity, wine is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist, which originates in the Gospel account of the Last Supper (Gospel of Luke 22:19) describing Jesus sharing bread and wine with his disciples and commanding them to "do this in remembrance of me." Beliefs about the nature of the Eucharist vary among Christian denomination, denominations.

Many Protestants in the US use pasteurization, pasteurized grape juice as a substitute for wine, a practise dating from the mid-19th century when Methodism, Methodist prohibitionist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape juice. Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance movement popularized the substitution, and it spread quickly over much of the United States.

Islam

Alcoholic drinks, including wine, are forbidden under most interpretations of Sharia, Islamic law. In many Muslim countries, possession or consumption of alcoholic drinks carry legal penalties. Iran had previously had Viticulture in Iran, a thriving wine industry that disappeared after the Iranian Revolution, Islamic Revolution in 1979. In Greater Persia, ''Persian wine, mey'' (Persian wine) was a central theme of poetry for more than a thousand years, long before the advent of Islam. Some Alevi sects – one of the two main branches of Islam in Turkey (the other being Sunni Islam) – use wine in their religious services.

Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcohol derived from a source other than the grape (or its byproducts) and the date is allowed in "very small quantities" (loosely defined as a quantity that does not cause intoxication) under the Sunni Hanafi ''madhab'', for specific purposes (such as medicines), where the goal is not intoxication. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcohol consumption as totally forbidden.

See also

* Outline of wine
* Glossary of wine terms
* Classification of wine
* Winemaking
* List of grape varieties
* Health effects of wine
* Storage of wine
* Maceration (wine)
* Pressing (wine)
* Vidal blanc
* Hybrid grape
* Wine warehouses of Bercy
* Blue wine

Notes

References

Further reading

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
online review
*

External links

''The Guardian'' & ''Observer'' Guide to Wine

{{Authority control

Wine,
Alcoholic drinks
Fermented drinks
Grape drinks
Ceremonial food and drink
Cooking