Wangliang

In Chinese folklore, a ''wangliang'' ( zh, t=魍魎, p=wǎngliǎng or zh, t=罔兩) is a type of malevolent spirit. Interpretations of the ''wangliang'' include a wilderness spirit, similar to the '' kui'', a water spirit akin to the Chinese dragon, a fever demon like the , a graveyard ghost also called or , and a man-eating demon described as resembling a 3-year-old child with brown skin, red eyes, long ears, and beautiful hair.

Name

In modern Chinese usage, ''wangliang'' is usually written with radical-phonetic characters, combining the "ghost radical" (typically used to write words concerning ghosts, demons, etc.) with the phonetic elements and ) (lit. "deceive" and "two", respectively). In Warring States period (475–221 BC) usage, ''wangliang'' was also phonetically transcribed using the character pronunciations and , and written as with the " animal radical" (used to write names of insects, dragons, etc.) or ) using ; "dry moat") with the " gate radical" (typically used in architectural terminology). The earliest recorded usages of ''wangliang'' in the Chinese classics are: in the (c. 5th–4th century BC) in the (c. 389 BCE) in the (c. 91 BC) ''Shiji'', and in the (121 AD) ''Shuowen jiezi'' (or possibly the ''Kongzi Jiayu'' of uncertain date).

While only occurs as a bound morpheme in ''wangliang'', ''wang'' appears in other expressions, such as . frequently occurs in the synonym-compound . Since commentators differentiate between ''chimei'' ("demons of the mountains and forests") and ''wangliang'' ("demons of the rivers and marshes"), ''chimeiwangliang'' can mean either "demons; monsters; evil spirits" in general or "mountain demons and water demons" separately. For example, James Legge's ''Zuozhuan'' translation syllabically splits ''chimeiwangliang'' into four types of demons: "the injurious things, and the hill-sprites, monstrous things, and water-sprites".

Chinese scholars have identified and as probable synonyms of ''wangliang'' < Old Chinese *''maŋʔp.raŋʔ'' (citing Baxter and Sagart's 2014 reconstructions). ''Wangxiang'' < *''maŋʔs. ŋʔ'' means "water demon," and the reverse ''xiangwang'' < *''s. ŋʔmaŋʔ'' means "a water ghost" in the ''Zhuangzi'' (which uses ''wangliang'' < *''maŋʔp.raŋʔ'' for the allegorical character Penumbra, see below). The ''Guoyu'' distinguishes as "a tree and rock demon" and as "a water demon" (see below). ''Fangliang'' < *''paŋ ŋ'' names a "graveyard demon," identified as the ''wangliang'' < *''maŋʔp.raŋʔ'' , that is exorcized in the ''Zhouli'' (below).

A simple explanation for these phonological data and the evolving identifications of demon names is that they were dialectical variations or corruptions of each other. William G. Boltz offers a more sophisticated interpretation: these were not merely confusions between similar, but independent, names, but actually all variants of one and the same underlying designation: an initial consonantal cluster **''BLjang'' ~ **''BZjang'', meaning "see". Citing Bernhard Karlgren's reconstructions of Old Chinese, Boltz presents ''mjwang-ljang'' < **''BLjang'', ''pjwang-ljang'' < **''BLjang'', and ''mjwang-dzjang'' < **''BZjang''. Furthermore, if these names derived from a common protoform **''BLjang'' or **''BZjang'' meaning "see," it implies that the spirits were not so much "demons" as "specters" (from Latin ''spectrum,'' meaning "appearance; apparition") or "visions."

Another proposed etymology for ''xiangwang'' < ''s. ŋʔmaŋʔ'' is the Austro-Tai root ''s y]aŋ'' meaning "spirit; god".

The semantics of ''wangliang'' or are complicated, as evident in these translation equivalents of ''wangliang'' and ''wanggxiang'' in major Chinese-English dictionaries:
* see . an imaginary monster which devours the brains of the dead underground. — {{interp, {{lang, zh, 魎 A sprite; an elf. An animal said to eat the brains of the dead. It fears pine trees and tigers, which is why pine trees are planted at graves, and stone tigers are set up.{{r, Giles1912
*{{lang, zh, 罔兩 {{interp, see {{lang, zh, 魍魎 the penumbra. {{lang, zh, 罔象 an imaginary monster of the waters. — {{lang, zh, 魍魎 An elf. A sprite. An animal said to eat the brains of the dead underground.{{r, Mathews1931_Dict
*{{lang, zh, 罔兩 (1) spirits, monsters of the mountain rivers; (2) the penumbra. — {{lang, zh, 魍魎 a kind of monster.{{r, Liang1971_Dict
*{{lang, zh, 罔兩 (1) spirits, demons of the wilds (also wr. {{lang, zh, 魍魎); (2) (AC) the penumbra, fringe shadow. — {{lang, zh, 魍魎 mountain spirits, demons.{{r, Lin1972_Dict
*{{lang, zh, 魍魎 demons and monsters.{{r, DeFrancis2003_Dict{{r, KleemanYu2010_Dict

Classical usages

''Wangliang'' first appears in the Chinese classics around the 4th century BCE and was used in a variety of, sometimes contradictory, meanings. While the dates of some early texts are uncertain, the following examples are roughly arranged chronologically.

Guoyu

The '' Guoyu (book), Guoyu'' "Discourses of the States" (5th–4th century BCE) quotes Confucius using {{zhp, p=wangliang, c=魍魎 and {{zhp, p=wangxiang, c=罔象 to explain ancient demon names to Ji Huanzi ({{Lang, zh, 季桓子) (d. 492 BCE) of Lu.

Ji Huanzi ({{Lang, zh, 季桓子), a grandee of the state of Lu, caused a well to be dug, when they fetched up something like an earthen pot with a goat in it. He had {{interp, Zhong Ni (Confucius) interrogated about it, in these words: "I dug a well, and got a dog; tell me what this is." On which the Sage answered: "According to what I have learned, it must be a goat; for I have heard that apparitions between trees and rocks are called {{zhp, p=Kui, c=夔) and {{zhp, p=wangliang, c=魍魎, while those in the water are {{zhp, p=long, c=龍, tr=dragons, and {{zhp, p=wangxiang, c=罔象, and those in the ground are called {{zhp, p=fenyang, c=羵羊. ({{Lang, zh, 魯語下){{sfn, de Groot, 1908, loc=p. 495
p. 35 digitalized edition

This {{zhp, p=mushi, c=木石 literally means "trees and rocks" and figuratively refers to "inanimate beings; emotionlessness; indifference." Wei Zhao's commentary mentions that the {{zhp, p=wangxiang, c=罔象) supposedly eats humans and is also called the {{zhp, p=muzhong, c=木腫, tr=tree/wood swelling. The ''Shiji'' version of this story,{{sfn, de Groot, 1908, loc=p. 498
p. 38 digitalized edition
set in 507 BCE during the reign of Duke Ding of Jin, writes {{zhp, p=wangliang, c=罔閬 with {{zhi, out=c, c=閬, tr=dry moat and ''fenyang'' as {{zhi, out=c, c=墳羊, tr=grave sheep, using {{zhi, out=c, c=墳墳, tr=grave; tomb instead of {{zhi, out=c, c=墳羵羊, tr=spirit sheep (cf. ''Huannanzi'').

Zuozhuan

The ''Zuozhuan'' (late 4th century BCE) commentary on the '' Chunqiu'' (Spring and Autumn Annals, c. 6th–5th centuries BCE) contains one of the earliest recorded uses, if not the earliest, of {{zhp, p=chimeiwangliang, c=螭魅罔兩. In this context, it describes how Yu the Great, the legendary founder of the Xia dynasty, ordered the casting of the Nine Tripod Cauldrons to familiarize people with all the dangerous demons and monsters found in China's Nine Provinces.

In the past when the Xia dynasty still possessed virtue, the distant lands presented images of their strange creatures {{zhp, p=shenjian, c=神姦, tr=spirit rape and the heads of the nine provinces contributed bronze so that vessels were cast which illustrated these creatures. Every kind of strange creature was completely depicted in order that the common people would know the gods and the demons. Thus, when people went to the rivers, lakes, mountains, and forests, they did not encounter these adverse beings nor did the Chimei-Hobgoblins in the hills and the Wangliang-Goblins in the waters accost them. As a result, harmony was maintained between those above and those dwelling on Earth below while everywhere, the people received the protection of Heaven.{{r, trStrassberg2002_4

Chuci

The " Seven Remonstrances" section (6th remonstrance, {{lang, zh, 《哀命》) of the ''Chuci'' (c. 3rd–2nd century BCE, with some later additions) poetically uses {{zhp, p=wangliang, c=罔兩 to mean "feeling absentminded and baseless," according to Wang Yi's commentary. The context describes a drowning suicide in a river.

My fainting soul shrank back, oppressed; And as I lay, mouth full of water, deep below the surface, The light of the sun seemed dim and very far above me. Mourning for its body, dissolved now by decay; My unhoused spirit drifted, disconsolate {{interp, {{lang, zh, 罔兩 .{{r, Hawkes1985_255

Zhuangzi

The ''Zhuangzi'' (c. 3rd–2nd centuries BCE), a Daoist text, uses {{zhp, p=wangliang, c=罔兩 twice to name the allegorical character Penumbra, {{zhp, p=wangxiang, c=罔象 to mean "a water ghost," and {{zhp, p=xiangwang, c=象罔 for the character Amorphous.

Two chapters of the ''Zhuangzi'' recount similar versions of a dialogue between {{zhp, p=Wangliang, c=罔兩, or Penumbra, and {{zhp, p=Jing, c=景, tr=bright; shadow. In modern usage, "penumbra" is translated as {{zhp, p=banying, c=半影, tr=half shadow.

Penumbra inquired of Shadow, saying, "One moment you move and the next moment you stand still; one moment you're seated and the next moment you get up. Why are you so lacking in constancy?"
Shadow said, "Must I depend on something else to be what I am? If so, must what I depend upon in turn depend upon something else to be what it is? Must I depend upon the scales of a snake's belly or the forewings of a cicada? How can I tell why I am what I am? How can I tell why I 'm not what I'm not?" (2){{sfn, Mair, 1994, loc=p. 24; cf. 27, 1994: 281

''Wangxiang'' refers to a water demon named Nonimagoes. When Duke Huan of Qi (r. 685–643 BCE) was disturbed by seeing a ghost in a marsh, his chancellor Guan Zhong consulted a scholar from Qi named Master Leisurely Ramble ({{Lang, zh, 皇子告敖) about the various types of ghosts.

In pits there are pacers {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 履 ; around stoves there are tufties {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 髻 . Fulgurlings {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 雷霆 frequent dust piles inside the door; croakers {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 倍阿 and twoads {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 鮭蠪 hop about in low-lying places to the northeast; spillsuns {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 泆陽 frequent low-lying places to the northwest. In water there are nonimagoes {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 罔象 ; on hills there are scrabblers {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 峷 ; on mountains there are unipedes {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 夔 ; in the wilds there are will-o'-the-wisps {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 彷徨 ; and in marshes there are bendcrooks {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 委蛇 . (19){{sfn, Mair, 1994, p=105

''Xiangwang'' is the name of an allegorical character who discovers the {{zhp, p=xuanzhu, c=玄珠, Tr=dark/mysterious pearl; Daoist truth lost by the legendary Yellow Emperor.

The Yellow Emperor was wandering north of Redwater when he ascended the heights of K'unlun and gazed toward the south. As he was returning home, he lost his pearl of mystery. Knowledge {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 知 was sent to search for the pearl, but he couldn't find it. Spidersight {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 離朱 was sent to search for the pearl, but he couldn't find it. Trenchancy {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 喫詬 was sent to search for the pearl, but he couldn't find it, whereupon Amorphous {{interp, {{Lang, zh, 象罔 was sent and he found it. "Extraordinary!" said the Yellow Emperor. "In the end, it was Amorphous who was able to find it." (12){{sfn, Mair, 1994, p=105

This allegory about the Yellow Emperor is part of the "knowledge story cycle" in which ''Zhuangzi'' illustrates the Daoist philosophy of anti-epistemology, emphasizing the value of not knowing.{{sfn, Carr, 1988

Zhouli

The '' Zhouli'' (''Rites of the Zhou Dynasty'', 1st century BCE – 2nd century CE) records that during a royal funeral, the {{zhp, p=Fangxiangshi, c=方相氏, tr=exorcist would leap into the grave to drive away any corpse-eating {{zhp, p=fangliang, c=方良, which Zheng Xuan's commentary identifies as the {{zhp, p=wangxiang, c=罔象.

It is incumbent on the Rescuer of the Country to cover himself with a bear's skin, to mask himself with four eyes of yellow metal, to put on a black coat and a red skirt, and thus, lance in hand and brandishing a shield, to perform, at the head of a hundred followers, a purification in every season of the year, which means the finding out of (haunted) dwellings and driving away contagious diseases. At royal funerals he walks ahead of the coffin and, arriving at the grave, he leaps into the pit to beat the four corners with his lance, in order to drive away the fang-liang spectres.{{r, Groot1892_1623

Li Shizhen's ''Bencao Gangmu'' (Compendium of Materia Medica, 1578) includes the following under the Wangliang entry:{{r, Luo2003_4131 "''Fangliang'' mentioned here is actually ''Wangliang''. ''Wangliang'' loved to eat the livers of the dead, so people had to drive it away from tombs. It was afraid of tigers and arborvitae trees. That is why people placed stone tigers and planted arborvitae trees in graveyards."{{r, Read1931_no405

Huainanzi

The ''Huainanzi'' (139 BCE) uses {{zhp, p=wangliang, c=魍魎 to mean "mindless; zombielike" and {{zhp, p=wangxiang, c=罔象 to refer to "a water monster." The term ''wangliang'' appears in a description of people's mentality during the mythological golden age of Fuxi and Nüwa.

Their motions were calm and unhurried; their gaze was tranquil and uncurious. In their ignorance, they all got what they needed to know. Aimlessly drifting, they did not know what they were looking for; zombielike, they did not know where they were going.

Major explains that {{zhp, p=wangliang, c=魍魎 was "a kind of corpse monster, said to feed on the brains of the buried dead." The term wangliang appears in a context with Fenyang, "a sheep-like earth deity" (cf. ''Guoyu'' above), and two mythical birds.

henwater gives birth to waterbugs or clams, or mountains give birth to gold and jade, people do not find it strange. ... But when mountains give off {{zhp, p=Xiaoyang, c=梟陽, water gives birth to ''Wangxiang'', wood gives birth to {{zhp, p=Bifang, c=畢方, and wells give birth to {{zhp, p=Fenyang, c=墳羊, people find it strange.Tr. Major 2010: 522.{{Full citation needed, date=June 2021

Lunheng

Wang Chong's ''Lunheng'' (80 CE){{r, Groot1910_938 quotes the ''Liji'' (c. 2nd–1st century BCE), though not found in the received text, stating that one of the mythological emperor Zhuanxu's sons became a {{zhp, p=wangliang , c=魍魎).

huanxuhad three sons living who, when they died, became the ghosts of epidemics. One living in the water of the angzi became the Ghost of Fever, the second in the uowas a Water Spirit, the third, dwelling in the corners of palaces and houses, and in damp storerooms, would frighten children.{{r, trForke1907_242

Wolfram Eberhard notes that the Luo River ({{Lang, zh, 洛水) (cf. the modern Luo rivers, in Henan and Shaanxi) was supposedly located in Yunnan, and associates {{zhp, p=wangliang, c=魍魎 with the mythological {{zhp, p=yu, c=魊, tr=a three-legged tortoise that causes malaria.{{r, Eberhard1968_3321935

Shuowen Jiezi

Xu Shen's ''Shuowen Jiezi'' (121 CE) defines {{zhp, p=wangliang, c=魍魎:{{r, trKnechtges1983_216 "It is a spectral creature of mountains and rivers. The King of Huainan says, 'The appearance of the ''wangliang'' is like that of a three-year-old child, with a red-black color, red eyes, long ears, and beautiful hair.'" The received ''Huainanzi'' text does not contain this royal quote.

Gan Bao's ''Soushenji'' ("Records of Searching for Spirits," c. 350 CE){{sfn, de Groot, 1908, loc=p. 521
p. 60 digitalized edition
similarly quotes the {{zhp, p=Xia Dingji, c=夏鼎記: "A {{interp, ''wangxiang'' looks like a three-year-old child, has red eyes, a black color, big ears, and long arms with red claws. Even when fettered with ropes, it can find its umanfood."

Baopuzi

Ge Hong's ''Baopuzi'' (c. 320) mentions {{zhp, p=wangliang, c=魍魎 twice. One context lists the demon among the dangers facing foolish people who walk in mountain valleys.

Or they may be devoured by a tiger or a wolf; slain by a ''wang-liang'' demon (in the form of a brown child with red eyes, long ears, and a fine head of hair); or become hungry and remain without a method for dispensing with starchy foods; or become cold and lack a method for warming themselves. (6){{sfn, Ware, 1966, p=114

This translation includes a summarized description from the ''Shuowen Jiezi''. In the other context, Ge Hong quotes oral instructions from his master, Zheng Yin ({{Lang, zh, 鄭隱) (c. 215–c. 302), about preserving {{zhp, p=zhenyi, c=真一, tr=Truth-Unity.

Unity is not hard to know; persistence is the difficulty. Guard it without loss, and you will never know exhaustion. On land, it routs evil animals; on water, dispels crocodiles and dragons. No fear of demons, nor of poisonous insects. Ghost will not dare approach, nor blades strike. (18){{sfn, Ware, 1966, p=304

Shuyiji

The {{zhp, p=Shuyiji, c=述異記, tr=Records of Strange Things, compiled by Ren Fang ({{Lang, zh, 任昉) (460–508), contains a story about finding a {{zhp, p=fangxiang, c=方相, tr=demon that eats the brains of the dead, also called {{zhp, p=fushu, c=弗述, tr=not state or {{zhp, p=ao, c=媪, tr=old woman. The ''Bencao Gangmu'' quotes the story and records the medicinal use of the brain of the brain-eating ''fangxiang''.

The book ''Shuyi Ji'': In the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC) once an animal was caught by a hunter in {{zhp, p=Chencang, c=陳倉. It looked like a cross between a pig and a sheep. The hunter did not know what it was. At this time two young boys appeared. When asked, the boys said that it was called ''Fushu'' or ''Ao''. It ate the brains of the dead in tombs. When a twig of arborvitae was inserted into its head, it would die. Although such things are not related to medicine, they concern the dead. So they are also recorded here for reference. Such an animal is called Fangxiang. If it has four eyes it is called ''Qi''. Such things are all devils. In ancient times people made statues of human beings to represent such ghosts. It was recorded that Mr. {{zhp, p=Fei Zhangfang, c=費長房 once made medicinal pills of {{zhi, p=Li E, c=李娥 that contained the brain of ''Fangxiang'' as an ingredient. This prescription has been lost.{{r, Luo2003_4131

Notes

{{Notelist

References

* {{cite journal , last=Carr , first=Michael , date=1988 , title=Names in the Daoist Knowledge Stories , journal=Computational Analyses of Asian and African Languages , issue=30 , pages=57–112 , location=Tokyo , publisher=Institute of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa

* {{cite book , last=de Groot , first=Jan Jakob Maria , author-link=J. J. M. de Groot , date=1964 , orig-date=1908 , title=The Religious System of China , others=Volume V, Book II. The Soul and Ancestral Worship: Part II. Demonology. — Part III. Sorcery , location=Leiden - Taipei , publisher= E. J. Brill - Literature House (reprint) , ref=CITEREFde_Groot1908}
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* {{cite book , translator-last=Mair , translator-first=Victor H. , date=1994 , title=Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu , publisher=Bantam Books , ref=CITEREFMair1994

* {{cite book , translator-last=Ware , translator-first=James R. , date=1966 , title=Alchemy, Medicine and Religion in the China of A.D. 320: The 'Nei Pien' of Ko Hung , publisher=MIT Press , isbn=9780262230223 , ref=CITEREFWare1966

Footnotes
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Boltz, William G. (1979), "Philological Footnotes to the Han New Year Rites Festivals in Classical China: New Year and Other Annual Observances during the Han Dynasty 206 B. C.-A. D. 220 by Derk Bodde", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' 99.3: pp. 432–3 (423–439).

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{{cite book , author=Qu Yuan , translator-last=Hawkes , translator-first=David , translator-link=David Hawkes (Sinologist) , date=2011 , orig-date=1985 , title=The Songs of the South: An Anthology of Ancient Chinese Poems by Qu Yuan and Other Poets , publisher=Penguin , page=255 , isbn=9780140443752 , url-access=registration , url=https://archive.org/details/songsofsouthanci0000unse

{{cite book , last=de Groot , first=Jan Jakob Maria , author-link=J. J. M. de Groot , date=1964 , orig-date=1892 , title=The Religious System of China , others=Volume I, BOOK I. Disposal of the Dead. Part I. Funeral Rites. Part II. The Ideas of Resurrection , location=Leiden - Taipei , publisher= E. J. Brill - Literature House (reprint) , a
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Luo Xiwen, tr. (2003), ''Bencao Gangmu: Compendium of Materia Medica'', 6 vols., Foreign Languages Press. p. 4131.

Read, Bernard E. (1931), ''Chinese Materia Medica, Animal Drugs, From the ''Pen Ts'ao Kang Mu'' by Li Shih-Chen, A.D. 1597'', Peking Natural History Bulletin. no. 405.

{{cite book , last=de Groot , first=Jan Jakob Maria , author-link=J. J. M. de Groot , date=1910 , title=The Religious System of China , others=Volume VI Book II On the Soul and Ancestral Worship. Part IV. The War against Spectres. — Part V. The priesthood of Animism , location=Leiden , publisher= E. J. Brill , a
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Forke, Alfred, tr. (1907)
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{{cite book , last=Eberhard , first=Wolfram , author-link=Wolfram Eberhard , date=1968 , title=The Local Cultures of South and East China , location=Leiden , publisher= E. J. Brill , pages=332, 193–5 , isbn=9789004005167

Tr. Knechtges, David R., tr. (1983), ''Wen Xuan, Or, Selections of Refined Literature'', Princeton University Press. p. 216.

Yaoguai