Wang Xizhi ( zh, c=王羲之;
courtesy name
A courtesy name ( zh, s=字, p=zì, l=character), also known as a style name, is an additional name bestowed upon individuals at adulthood, complementing their given name. This tradition is prevalent in the East Asian cultural sphere, particula ...
: Yishao ( zh, labels=no, c=逸少); ) was a Chinese politician, general and calligrapher from the
Jin dynasty (266–420)
The Jin dynasty or Jin Empire, sometimes distinguished as the or the , was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty in China that existed from 266 to 420. It was founded by Emperor Wu of Jin, Sima Yan, eldest son of Sima Zhao, who had previou ...
known for his mastery of
Chinese calligraphy
Chinese calligraphy is the writing of Chinese characters as an art form, combining purely Visual arts, visual art and interpretation of the literary meaning. This type of expression has been widely practiced in China and has been generally held ...
. He is often regarded as the greatest calligrapher in Chinese history. His most famous work, composed in 353, is the (; "Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion").
Born in
Langya Commandery (in present-day
Linyi
Linyi ( zh, s=临沂 , t=臨沂 , p=Línyí) is a prefecture-level city in the south of Shandong province, China. As of 2011, Linyi is the largest prefecture-level city in Shandong, both by area and population, Linyi borders Rizhao to the eas ...
,
Shandong
Shandong is a coastal Provinces of China, province in East China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural ...
), Wang fled to southern China in his childhood after the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty. He studied calligraphy under the tutelage of relatives, including
Wei Shuo, and became engaged to Xi Xuan around the year 323. They had eight children, including
Wang Xianzhi, who later became a renowned calligrapher in his own right. Between 324 and 354, Wang Xizhi served in various government positions. He received his highest title, "General of the Right Army", in 347, and was appointed administrator of Kuaiji (present-day
Shaoxing
Shaoxing is a prefecture-level city on the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay in northeastern Zhejiang province, China. Located on the south bank of the Qiantang River estuary, it borders Ningbo to the east, Taizhou, Zhejiang, Taizhou to the south ...
,
Zhejiang
)
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese)
, image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg
, image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains
, image_map = Zhejiang i ...
). In 353, he hosted 41 of his friends, relatives, and pupils at the
Orchid Pavilion Gathering on
Mount Kuaiji
Mount Xianglu () is a mountain near Shaoxing, Zhejiang, China. Its summit has an elevation of .
History
Its historic name was Mount Kuaiji (), formerly romanized as Mount K'uai-chi. It was an important site for ancient China's Yue civilization ...
. There, the participants took part in a "
winding stream party" and Wang composed the , a preface to the collection of poems that were written that day. He retired from governmental service in 355, devoted himself to
Taoist
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ...
practices, and died in Jinting (present-day
Shengzhou, Zhejiang).
Wang is known for his proficiency in multiple
Chinese script styles, particularly the
regular,
semi-cursive, and
cursive
Cursive (also known as joined-up writing) is any style of penmanship in which characters are written joined in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster, in contrast to block letters. It varies in functionality and m ...
forms. Apart from the and his letters to others, he mainly produced copies of existing texts. His works were enthusiastically collected by both emperors and private collectors. In particular,
Emperor Taizong of Tang
Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty fo ...
established Wang and his style as the defining standard for Chinese calligraphy by requiring that the imperial court scholars study his techniques and employing calligraphers to make handwritten tracing copies and ink rubbings of his works. There are no known surviving original works by Wang – only rubbings and a small number of tracing copies. Wang's artistic talent continues to be held in high esteem, and he remains an influential figure in
East Asian calligraphy.
Life
Historical sources

Much of what is known about Wang Xizhi's life is derived from letters that he wrote during his lifetime and historical texts such as the () and the (). Wang makes 47 appearances within the 1,130 historical anecdotes of the , which was originally compiled during the 5th century. These anecdotes describe his interactions with contemporaries such as the statesman
Xie An and the poet
Sun Chuo. The , which details the history of the
Jin dynasty (266–420)
The Jin dynasty or Jin Empire, sometimes distinguished as the or the , was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty in China that existed from 266 to 420. It was founded by Emperor Wu of Jin, Sima Yan, eldest son of Sima Zhao, who had previou ...
, contains his official biography in its 80th volume. The work was commissioned in the 7th century by
Emperor Taizong of Tang
Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty fo ...
, who personally wrote a postscript to Wang's biography declaring him the greatest
calligrapher
Calligraphy () is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instruments. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an exp ...
in history.
Modern scholars have questioned the reliability and accuracy of these early sources. Xiaofei Tian, a scholar of Chinese literature, writes that the compilers of the , in an attempt to evoke feelings of nostalgia, were often "willing to sacrifice historical accuracy for the sake of a good story". Matthew V. Wells suggests that Emperor Taizong's unusual degree of involvement in the compilation of the may have been motivated by a desire to create a pro-imperial work and revise the presentation of historical events for his own purposes. In his analysis of the biography of
Wang Dao, the uncle of Wang Xizhi, Wells observes that its authors selectively omitted anecdotes from the that were unflattering or otherwise did not depict Wang Dao as a model statesman. Because many other historical accounts of the Jin dynasty have not survived, the and the continue to be referenced as rich sources of information about the era, despite their limitations.
Early years and family
Wang Xizhi was born in Linyi in
Langya Commandery (present-day
Linyi
Linyi ( zh, s=临沂 , t=臨沂 , p=Línyí) is a prefecture-level city in the south of Shandong province, China. As of 2011, Linyi is the largest prefecture-level city in Shandong, both by area and population, Linyi borders Rizhao to the eas ...
,
Shandong
Shandong is a coastal Provinces of China, province in East China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural ...
). During his childhood, his personal name was A'tu (). He was later given the
courtesy name
A courtesy name ( zh, s=字, p=zì, l=character), also known as a style name, is an additional name bestowed upon individuals at adulthood, complementing their given name. This tradition is prevalent in the East Asian cultural sphere, particula ...
Yishao (), and adopted the studio name Danzhai (). He was a member of an aristocratic family, the
Wang clan of Langya
The Wang clan of Langya (or Langye) () was a Chinese clan which gained political prominence during the Han dynasty and became one of the most powerful non-imperial clans during the Eastern Jin period.
History
Origins
According to the New Book o ...
, and his father, Wang Kuang (), was the governor of
Huainan. With the collapse of the Western Jin dynasty following the capture and execution of
Emperor Huai, the Wang family fled to southern China and helped establish the Eastern Jin in 317. Together with other aristocratic immigrants such as the
Xie clan of Chen, they dominated the regional politics of this period.
In his youth, Wang had difficulties with his speech, but he became a skilled orator later in life. He studied calligraphy under the tutelage of
Wei Shuo, also known as "Lady Wei", who was Wang Kuang's cousin. Wang Kuang was also involved in his son's lessons, working with Wei to teach him the techniques of the calligrapher
Cai Yong. Wei Shuo was a specialist in the
clerical,
regular, and
semi-cursive script
Semi-cursive script, also known as running script, is a style of Chinese calligraphy that emerged during the Han dynasty (202 BC220 AD). The style is used to write Chinese characters and is abbreviated slightly where a character's stro ...
styles of Chinese calligraphy, and gave lessons on selection of calligraphy supplies, proper posture, and basic stroke techniques. Wang Xizhi also learned calligraphy from his uncle, Wang Yi (), a painter and calligrapher who was married to the sister of
Emperor Yuan of Jin. After his parents died, Wang Xizhi lived in the household of his uncle
Wang Dao, a prominent politician and the patriarch of the Wang family. Wang Dao helped suppress attempted coups by his cousin
Wang Dun in 322 and 324. Wang Xizhi's reaction to these conflicts between his uncles, which ultimately resulted in Wang Dun's death in 324, left him with a distaste for political and military affairs.

Around the year 323, Wang became engaged to Xi Xuan, the eldest daughter of the military general
Xi Jian. In a well-known anecdote from the and the , Xi Jian sent an emissary to Wang Dao's household to find a suitable husband for his daughter. While the other young men flaunted themselves in fine clothing, an indifferent Wang Xizhi arrived late and sprawled across a bed, with his robes open and belly exposed due to the heat. The emissary was impressed by his spontaneity and reported back to Xi Jian, who agreed to the match. Xi Xuan was also skilled at calligraphy. She and Wang had eight recorded children: seven sons – Xuanzhi, Ningzhi, Huanzhi, Suzhi,
Huizhi, Caozhi, and
Xianzhi Xianzhi (Old Chinese: 鮮支 (xiānzhī)), is one of the Xiongnu tribes.
Etymology
Xianzhi means Gardenia in Chinese.
History
It is one of the 19 Xiongnu tribes counted by the Jin book. There is limited information about the Xianzhi (鮮支) ...
– and one daughter, Mengjiang. Wang Xianzhi, their youngest son, became a renowned calligrapher in his own right, and he and Wang Xizhi were later praised as the "Two Wangs" or "Two Kings" ().
Political career
Wang Xizhi was appointed to various government positions between 324 and 354. He started as an assistant in the
Palace Library
The Palace Library (; in Vietnam: 秘書所, ''Bí thư sở'') was a central government agency in Imperial and monarchical China, Korea, and Vietnam generally in charge of maintaining and archiving the collection of the monarch's documents.
C ...
, and he served as a companion and mentor to the future
Emperor Jianwen of Jin
Emperor Jianwen of Jin (; 320 – September 12, 372), personal name Sima Yu (), courtesy name Daowan (), was an emperor of the Eastern Jin dynasty in China. He was the younger brother of Emperor Ming and installed by military leader Huan Wen ...
. Around the year 334, he became the military aide to the general
Yu Liang, who later praised him as "pure and noble, a man with discriminating judgment". Wang was named governor of Linchuan (present-day
Linchuan,
Jiangxi
; Gan: )
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 =
, translit_lang1_type3 =
, translit_lang1_info3 =
, image_map = Jiangxi in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, mapsize = 275px
, map_caption = Location ...
) in 336. After declining several offers from Wang Dao to serve in the Department of Personnel, he became the regional inspector of Jiangzhou (near present-day
Huangmei County,
Hubei
Hubei is a province of China, province in Central China. It has the List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP, seventh-largest economy among Chinese provinces, the second-largest within Central China, and the third-largest among inland ...
) and received the title of "General Who Brings Repose to the Distance" . In 346, he was reluctantly persuaded by his friend
Yin Hao to accept the appointment of "General Who Defends the Army".
He then requested an appointment as the administrator of Xuancheng (present-day
Xuancheng
Xuancheng ( zh, s=宣城, p=Xuānchéng''; Xuanzhou Wu dialects, Xuanzhou Wu:'' Shye-san) is a city in the southeast of Anhui province. Archeological digs suggest that the city has been settled for over 4,000 years, and has been under formal admin ...
,
Anhui
Anhui is an inland Provinces of China, province located in East China. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze and Huai rivers, bordering Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the east, Jiang ...
), so that he could focus on his cultural interests in a remote area, away from dynastic politics. He was instead appointed administrator of Kuaiji (present-day
Shaoxing
Shaoxing is a prefecture-level city on the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay in northeastern Zhejiang province, China. Located on the south bank of the Qiantang River estuary, it borders Ningbo to the east, Taizhou, Zhejiang, Taizhou to the south ...
,
Zhejiang
)
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese)
, image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg
, image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains
, image_map = Zhejiang i ...
), and moved there with his family in 347. That same year, he received his highest title, (; "General of the Right Army"). Because of this title, he later received the nickname "Wang Youjun" (). Despite his military titles, Wang disliked war, never engaged in warfare himself, and often tried to prevent armed conflicts. He unsuccessfully attempted to convince Yin Hao, who was in a fierce rivalry with the ambitious general
Huan Wen, to abandon his plans to lead an army into northern China; Yin Hao's expeditions ultimately ended in failure.
Orchid Pavilion Gathering

On 22 April 353, Wang hosted 41 of his friends, relatives, and pupils at the Orchid Pavilion on
Mount Kuaiji
Mount Xianglu () is a mountain near Shaoxing, Zhejiang, China. Its summit has an elevation of .
History
Its historic name was Mount Kuaiji (), formerly romanized as Mount K'uai-chi. It was an important site for ancient China's Yue civilization ...
for the
Double Third Festival, which was celebrated annually on the third day of the third month of the
Chinese calendar
The traditional Chinese calendar, dating back to the Han dynasty, is a lunisolar calendar that blends solar, lunar, and other cycles for social and agricultural purposes. While modern China primarily uses the Gregorian calendar for officia ...
. Originating as a spring purification ritual, the festival became popular among scholars who gathered each year to discuss philosophical topics, compose poetry, and drink
rice wine
Rice wine is an alcoholic beverage fermentation, fermented from rice, traditionally consumed in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia, where rice is a quintessential staple crop. Rice wine is made by the fermentation of rice starch, during wh ...
.
Wang's gathering included six of his sons (Xuanzhi, Ningzhi, Huanzhi, Suzhi, Huizhi, and Xianzhi), as well as Xie An, Sun Chuo, and the
Buddhist
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
monk
Zhi Dun
Zhi Dun (; 314–366) was a Chinese Buddhist monk and philosopher. A Chinese author, scholar and confidant of Chinese government officials in 350, he claimed that all who followed Buddhism would, at the end of their life, enter Nirvana.
Accord ...
. The participants of the Orchid Pavilion Gathering took part in a "
winding stream party", a customary
drinking game
Drinking games are games which involve the consumption of alcoholic beverages and often enduring the subsequent intoxication resulting from them. Evidence of the existence of drinking games dates back to antiquity. Drinking games have been banne ...
in which they composed poetry while cups containing rice wine floated down the stream towards them. Those who were able to compose two poems before the cups reached them would have to drink only one cup of wine, whereas those who were unsuccessful had to drink more. The scholars composed a total of 41 poems that day.
The (; "Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion"), the most famous calligraphic work attributed to Wang (though its authenticity has been debated), is a preface to the collection of poems that were written that day. The Orchid Pavilion Gathering has been described as "one of the most famous events in Chinese literary history". It has been depicted in numerous works of art and literature, and features as a prominent theme in paintings from the
Song
A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usu ...
and
Ming dynasties in China and the
Edo period
The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
in Japan.
Retirement and later years
In 355, Wang announced that he would resign from governmental service. This decision was precipitated when Wang Shu, a political rival, was appointed regional inspector of Yangzhou and gained oversight of Kuaiji and Wang Xizhi's administration. The two men had personally feuded for many years. Wang Shu subsequently opened an investigation into Kuaiji's finances, alleging that Wang Xizhi had mishandled the collection of taxes in the region. Resolving to leave his position rather than continue working under his new superior, Wang Xizhi retired, citing ill health.
After his retirement, Wang moved to Jinting (present-day
Shengzhou, Zhejiang) and devoted himself to
Taoist
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ...
practices. The Wang clan of Langya were well-known adherents of the
Way of the Celestial Masters movement of Taoism, and Wang's letters indicate that he was a follower of this movement as well. On one occasion when his granddaughter was ill, he composed a written confession of his own perceived moral failings, believing that these were linked to her illness and that he needed to petition the celestial masters to heal her. He regularly collected medicinal herbs that were believed to grant longevity, and together with his brother-in-law Xi Yin, he practiced (abstinence from
cereal
A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize ( Corn). Edible grains from other plant families, ...
s). During his lifetime, he transcribed several Taoist texts, including the (; "Yellow Court Classic").
Wang died . Details about the circumstances of his death are unknown, but he had frequently mentioned his poor health in his letters to others. The maladies that were detailed in the letters include
fatigue
Fatigue is a state of tiredness (which is not sleepiness), exhaustion or loss of energy. It is a signs and symptoms, symptom of any of various diseases; it is not a disease in itself.
Fatigue (in the medical sense) is sometimes associated wit ...
and
weakness
Weakness is a symptom of many different medical conditions. The causes are many and can be divided into conditions that have true or perceived muscle weakness. True muscle weakness is a primary symptom of a variety of skeletal muscle diseases, ...
,
insomnia
Insomnia, also known as sleeplessness, is a sleep disorder where people have difficulty sleeping. They may have difficulty falling asleep, or staying asleep for as long as desired. Insomnia is typically followed by daytime sleepiness, low ene ...
,
gastrointestinal issues,
chronic pain
Chronic pain is pain that persists or recurs for longer than 3 months.https://icd.who.int/browse/2025-01/mms/en#1581976053 It is also known as gradual burning pain, electrical pain, throbbing pain, and nauseating pain. This type of pain is in cont ...
, and
chest discomfort
Chest pain is pain or discomfort in the chest, typically the front of the chest. It may be described as sharp, dull, pressure, heaviness or squeezing. Associated symptoms may include pain in the shoulder, arm, upper abdomen, or jaw, along with na ...
. He sought out many treatments and therapies such as
acupuncture
Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientif ...
,
moxibustion
Moxibustion () is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy which consists of burning dried mugwort ('' moxa'') on particular points on the body. It plays an important role in the traditional medical systems of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and ...
, and various medicinal substances, including the psychoactive and toxic
Cold-Food Powder which may have exacerbated his symptoms. He has been traditionally believed to be buried in a tomb in Jinting, which has become a major tourist attraction in Shengzhou. Some modern scholarship has suggested that he may have been actually buried in
Jiankang
Jiankang (), or Jianye (), as it was originally called, was the capital city of the Eastern Wu (229–265 and 266–280 CE), the Jin dynasty (265–420), Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420 CE) and the Southern Dynasties (420–552), including the Ch ...
(present-day
Nanjing
Nanjing or Nanking is the capital of Jiangsu, a province in East China. The city, which is located in the southwestern corner of the province, has 11 districts, an administrative area of , and a population of 9,423,400.
Situated in the Yang ...
,
Jiangsu
Jiangsu is a coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the List of Chinese administra ...
), the capital of the Eastern Jin, alongside other members of his family.
Calligraphy
Provenance
The first known collector of Wang's calligraphy was
Huan Xuan, a Jin dynasty warlord who collected two wrappers (each containing approximately ten scrolls) of works by Wang Xizhi and his son, Wang Xianzhi. Another early collector, Duke Hui, was tricked by dealers who soaked forgeries in dirty water to make them appear older and then sold them as originals. The emperors of the
Liu Song dynasty
Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern dynasties (南朝宋) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties peri ...
(420–479) were enthusiastic art collectors whose imperial collection included many pieces by the Two Wangs.
Emperor Xiaowu obtained ten scrolls of Wang Xizhi's calligraphy from private collectors, but collected many forgeries as well. A violent palace revolt during the reign of
Liu Ziye
Former Deposed Emperor of Liu Song or Emperor Qianfei ((劉)宋前廢帝; 25 February 449 – 1 January 466), personal name Liu Ziye (劉子業), childhood name Fashi (法師), was an emperor of the Chinese Liu Song dynasty. His brief reign as a t ...
caused the imperial collection to be scattered. His successor,
Emperor Ming, reassembled and expanded the collection and tasked an expert calligrapher with cataloguing and authenticating the pieces. In total, 52 wrappers containing 520 scrolls of works by the Two Wangs were documented at the time. Over the next century, emperors continued to acquire new works of calligraphy, reacquire stolen ones, and hire expert authenticators. After
Emperor Yuan of Liang reportedly set fire to his collection of 240,000 scrolls as an enemy army was approaching the capital, only about 4,000 scrolls were able to be salvaged from the ashes; it is unknown how many of these were produced by Wang.

Emperor Taizong of Tang, a great admirer of Wang, amassed a collection of over 2,000 of his works (including originals and copies) and required that the imperial court scholars study his calligraphic techniques. The emperor was particularly fascinated with the and went to great lengths to obtain the original, which he ordered to be buried in
his mausoleum upon his death. He employed calligraphers to make tracing copies of the and other works by Wang, using semitransparent tracing paper that was placed over the original versions. They also produced copies using the ink rubbing technique, which involved carving a tracing copy into a stone block, placing a thin sheet of paper over the engraving, and pounding an inkpad onto the surface to transfer the characters to the paper. This process was more efficient than tracing by hand, but it was also less accurate. These reproductions, along with the creation of an imperial office to teach calligraphy to young scholars in the capital, firmly established Wang and his style as the defining standard for Chinese calligraphy. According to the art historian
Lothar Ledderose, Emperor Taizong was the "one man who did most for the propagation of the Wang
izhitradition".
The emperors of the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
continued to promote reproductions of Wang's calligraphy. Around this time, the "Dingwu stone", an engraving of the made by
Ouyang Xun
Ouyang Xun ( zh, c=歐陽詢, w=Ou-yang Hsün, p=Ōuyáng Xún; 557–641), courtesy name Xinben ( zh, c=信本, w=Hsin-pên, p=Xìn běn), was a Chinese calligrapher, politician, and writer of the early Tang dynasty. He was born in Changsha, Huna ...
and widely considered to be most faithful to the original, was discovered in the
Hebei
Hebei is a Provinces of China, province in North China. It is China's List of Chinese administrative divisions by population, sixth-most populous province, with a population of over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. It bor ...
province. During the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
, Wang's works were mainly promoted by private collectors who accumulated compilation albums of his rubbings. In the present day, there are no known surviving original works by Wang Xizhi. The earliest extant reproductions of his work were produced during the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
, including a small number of tracing copies. Numerous rubbings exist – including many copies of the Dingwu stone – but these have likely become less accurate over the centuries as inaccuracies are propagated over time when new engravings are made from older rubbings.
Technique and style
Wang is known for his proficiency in multiple
Chinese script styles, particularly the
regular (),
semi-cursive (), and
cursive
Cursive (also known as joined-up writing) is any style of penmanship in which characters are written joined in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster, in contrast to block letters. It varies in functionality and m ...
() forms. His calligraphy also contains traces of patterns found in the early
seal script
Seal script or sigillary script () is a Chinese script styles, style of writing Chinese characters that was common throughout the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. It evolved organically out of bronze script during the Zhou dynasty (1 ...
() style, according to an analysis by
Dong Qichang
Dong Qichang (; courtesy name Xuanzai (玄宰); 1555–1636) was a Chinese art theorist, Calligraphy, calligrapher, Painting, painter, and politician of the later period of the Ming dynasty.
Life as a scholar and calligrapher
Dong Qichang was a ...
, an art theorist and calligrapher of the Ming dynasty who studied the stylistic effects of the brush tip in Wang's works. Although he produced famous works in multiple script styles, he remains best known for his innovations in semi-cursive script, the style of the . His works vary in length from a few lines to several hundred characters and, apart from the and his letters to others, are largely copies of existing texts.
A hallmark of Wang's calligraphy, according to the art historian
Robert E. Harrist Jr., is the presence of "brushstrokes that are carefully formed and create a sense of disciplined energy flowing down the page", even for text that appears to have been rapidly written. He regularly experimented with varying the speed and direction of the brush, resulting in distinctive visual characteristics in different instances of recurring strokes. In the , for instance, characters that are repeated have different visual forms, creating a sense of spontaneity that reflects the scene during which it was written. In contrast to the relatively wide characters typically seen in
clerical script
The clerical script (), sometimes also chancery script, is a style of Chinese writing that evolved from the late Warring States period to the Qin dynasty. It matured and became dominant in the Han dynasty, and remained in active use through t ...
(), Wang's characters were more vertically elongated and compact.
The study of Wang's style is challenged by the lack of surviving original works. In debating the differences between Wang's calligraphy and archaeological texts produced by other writers around the same time period, some scholars have questioned the relative influence of Wang versus the Tang calligraphers who copied his pieces. Ledderose observes that the works attributed to Wang vary widely in style, precision, and balance, making a "correct assessment of his personal contribution quite difficult".
Representative works
Written in regular script:
* (; "Essay on Yue Yi"): a transcription of an essay authored by
Xiahou Xuan about
Yue Yi
Yue Yi (), enfeoffed as Lord of Changguo (), was a Chinese military general. He was a prominent military leader of the State of Yan during the Warring States period of ancient China. He was the son of the prime minister of the state of Zhongshan ...
, a military general during the
Warring States period
The Warring States period in history of China, Chinese history (221 BC) comprises the final two and a half centuries of the Zhou dynasty (256 BC), which were characterized by frequent warfare, bureaucratic and military reforms, and ...
. Copied by Wang in 348, it is generally regarded as the best example of his regular script.
* (; "Yellow Court Classic"): a transcription of a Taoist text describing methods of
meditation
Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking", achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state, while not judging the meditat ...
. There are two versions of this text; the shorter one () was copied by Wang in 356.
* (; "Eulogy to a Portrait of Dongfang Shuo"): a transcription of a text authored by the poet Xiaohou Chen about a portrait of
Dongfang Shuo, a court
jester
A jester, also known as joker, court jester, or fool, was a member of the household of a nobleman or a monarch kept to entertain guests at the royal court. Jesters were also travelling performers who entertained common folk at fairs and town ma ...
of the
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
. Wang's original copy, written in 356, was reportedly buried in the tomb of his relative, Wang Xiu.
Written in semi-cursive script:
* (; "Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion"): Wang's most celebrated work of calligraphy, composed in 353 at the Orchid Pavilion Gathering.
* (; "Letter of Distress and Indignation"): a letter from Wang expressing despair that he is unable to mourn at his ancestors' tombs in the conquered north. Records indicate that a tracing copy was preserved in the Japanese imperial household and donated to the
Shōsōin
The is the wikt:treasure house, treasure house of Tōdai-ji Temple in Nara, Nara, Nara, Japan. The building is in the ''azekura'' (log-cabin) style with a raised floor. It lies to the northwest of the Great Buddha Hall. The Shōsō-in houses arti ...
treasure house in the 8th century.
* (; "Letter to Kong"): a letter from Wang asking about the well-being of one of his friends. Like the , a tracing copy of this letter was among a Japanese imperial collection of Wang's calligraphy that was later donated to the Shōsōin.
* (; "Sudden Clearing after a Lively Snowfall"): a letter from Wang addressed to a "Marquis of Zhang" in which he remarks on the clear weather.
* (; "Letter on Presenting Oranges"): a letter from Wang to a friend to accompany a gift of 300 oranges. It is Wang's shortest known letter, comprising 12 characters.
* (; "Ritual to Pray for Good Harvest"): a 15-character fragment of a letter from Wang. Though the art historian
Zhang Yanyuan identified the second half of the letter containing the remaining 17 characters, the meaning of the letter is still unclear. Wang appears to reference a ritual or ceremony involving the addressee and nine others. The is the only tracing copy of Wang's calligraphy held in a Western collection (the
Princeton University Art Museum).

Written in cursive script:
* (; "Seventeen Posts"): a collection of 29 letters from Wang that were reportedly later engraved during the Tang dynasty. The name of the collection is derived from the first two characters in the opening letter.
* (; "National Territory"): a letter from Wang that was later owned by
Mi Fu
Mi Fu (Chinese language, Chinese: 米芾; 1051–1107)Barnhart: 373. He was born with the name 米黻, also pronounced Mi Fu. His courtesy name was Yuanzhang (元章) with several sobriquets: Nangong (南宮), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), Xiang ...
, a calligrapher of the Song dynasty, who treasured it and described it as "the foremost
ritingin existence".
Debates on authenticity
The complicated textual history of Wang's calligraphy has led to debates over the authenticity of his works, primarily the . During the Song dynasty, the poets
Jiang Kui and
Lu You
Lu You ( zh, s=陆游, t=陸游, first=t; 1125–1210) was a Chinese historian and List of Chinese language poets, poet of the Southern Song Dynasty (南宋).
Career Early life and marriage
Lu You was born on a boat floating in the Wei River e ...
began to question the authenticity of the preface. Several centuries later, some scholars of the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
rejected the claim that Wang produced the based on arguments that it did not include characters written in clerical script, that its semi-cursive script may not have been developed until after Wang's lifetime, and that it was inconsistent with another recorded version, the (; "Preface to the Riverbank Gathering"). They instead hypothesized that it was written by a later calligrapher of the
Sui or Tang dynasties, but this was a minority view at the time.
During the 1960s, the question of the authenticity was revived by
Guo Moruo
Guo Moruo (November 16, 1892 – June 12, 1978), courtesy name Dingtang, was a Chinese author, poet, historian, archaeologist, and government official.
Biography
Family history
Guo Moruo, originally named Guo Kaizhen, was born on November 10 or ...
, the chairman of the
Chinese Academy of Sciences
The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS; ) is the national academy for natural sciences and the highest consultancy for science and technology of the People's Republic of China. It is the world's largest research organization, with 106 research i ...
and the
China Federation of Literary and Art Circles
The China Federation of Literary and Art Circles (CFLAC), established in July 1949, is a Chinese people's organization composed of nationwide associations of writers and artists. CFLAC is one of the founders of CPPCC (Chinese People's Political ...
. Guo published an article in 1965 rejecting Wang's authorship based on the recent discovery of tombs from the Jin dynasty whose inscriptions were written in clerical script. Guo also presented the argument that portions of the , which somberly reflect on the transience of life, were inconsistent with the celebratory nature of the Orchid Pavilion Gathering. He suggested that it was actually written by Zhiyong, a Buddhist monk who was a descendant of Wang. In the wake of the
Socialist Education Movement
__NOTOC__
The Socialist Education Movement (, abbreviated 社教运动 or 社教運動), also known as the Four Cleanups Movement () was a 1963–1965 movement launched by Mao Zedong in the People's Republic of China. Mao sought to remove reactio ...
, few scholars were willing to publicly challenge Guo's claims, and those who did were attacked by Guo and his political allies in the
Chinese Communist Party
The Communist Party of China (CPC), also translated into English as Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the ...
.
He Jianjun, a scholar of Chinese history, wrote that Guo's motivation for challenging the authenticity of the was political, not academic, and that Guo was deliberately trying to subvert "the single most important Chinese work of art of past millennia", usher in the
Cultural Revolution
The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a Social movement, sociopolitical movement in the China, People's Republic of China (PRC). It was launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 and lasted until his de ...
, and establish his own authority in cultural debates. These debates over Wang's calligraphy subsided after 1966 as critics shifted their focus to other works such as ''
Hai Rui Dismissed from Office
''Hai Rui Dismissed from Office'' (; also called ''Dismissal of Hai Jui'' in English) is a stage play, written by Wu Han (1909–1969), notable for its involvement in Chinese politics during the Cultural Revolution. The play itself focused on ...
''. Guo's claim that clerical script would have been used exclusively during Wang's lifetime was weakened in 1988 upon the discovery of an Eastern Jin tomb with an inscription written in regular script.
Legacy
Posthumous reputation
Wang's works were already popular during his lifetime, and in the centuries after Wang's death, collectors continued to seek out his calligraphy. The value of an imperial collection was often judged by the number of works written by the Two Wangs. As Wang Xizhi's works were the most valuable part of the collection, they surpassed "their aesthetic value and function as a symbol of power". Thus, emperors continually sought to expand their collection of Wang's calligraphy in order to strengthen their own perceived legitimacy. Around the time of the Tang dynasty, he was designated the "Sage of Calligraphy" (; ), a title that is still used to describe him in the present day.
As a result of Emperor Taizong's patronage, Wang is generally considered to be the most significant Chinese calligrapher in history. The , according to Ledderose, is "the most celebrated piece of calligraphy of all time", admired for both its calligraphy and its text. He is an influential figure in
Japanese calligraphy
, also called , is a form of calligraphy, or artistic writing, of the Japanese language. Japanese writing system, Written Japanese was originally based on Man'yōgana, Chinese characters only, but the advent of the hiragana and katakana Japane ...
as well. After his calligraphy was established as the defining model in China during the Tang dynasty, it was transmitted to Japan during the
Nara
The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is an independent agency of the United States government within the executive branch, charged with the preservation and documentation of government and historical records. It is also task ...
and
Heian
The Japanese word Heian (平安, lit. "peace") may refer to:
* Heian period, an era of Japanese history
* Heian-kyō, the Heian-period capital of Japan that has become the present-day city of Kyoto
* Heian series, a group of karate kata (forms)
* ...
periods. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Heian court standardized Wang's semi-cursive and cursive scripts and these were copied by Japanese calligraphers, resulting in a distinctive Japanese style of that time period. Extant tracing copies of Wang's work, which are rare, continue to be highly valued. In 2010, a scroll with four lines of Wang's calligraphy, copied during the Tang dynasty, was sold at a
China Guardian auction in Beijing for ().
Several locations associated with Wang's life have become visitor attractions in China. The site of his childhood residence in Linyi is open to tourists and features an "ink pond" where he reportedly washed his brush while writing. In Shaoxing, the site of the Orchid Pavilion contains a stone engraving of the and receives over one million visitors annually, and his tomb is popular with visitors as well. The
Tishan Bridge (; ; ) in Shaoxing is named after an anecdote in which Wang took pity on a struggling vendor and inscribed her fans with his calligraphy to increase their value. The fans were easily sold and the old woman reapproached Wang with even more fans, but he declined to sign them and slipped out through a side door.
Depictions in art

According to an anecdote from the ''Jin shu'', Wang once received ten live geese in exchange for transcribing two chapters from the ''
Tao Te Ching
The ''Tao Te Ching'' () or ''Laozi'' is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship and date of composition and compilation are debated. The oldest excavated por ...
'', a foundational Taoist text. After his lifetime, art theorists such as
Guo Xi continued to associate him with geese, creating the narrative that his calligraphic brush technique was inspired by the way that the geese moved their necks. Wang's fondness for geese "has come to be ''the'' emblem of his artistic personality in popular and elite imagination alike", and his depictions in art typically show him in the presence of geese. A 14th-century rubbing of a painting from the Song dynasty is the earliest known depiction of Wang with geese. A well-known painting, ''Wang Xizhi Watching Geese'' by
Qian Xuan, was painted and is housed in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met, is an Encyclopedic museum, encyclopedic art museum in New York City. By floor area, it is the List of largest museums, third-largest museum in the world and the List of larg ...
.
Though the Orchid Pavilion Gathering in 353 did not involve geese, artists have often combined the two themes in their paintings of Wang. According to the art historian Kazuko Kameda-Madar, the gathering itself is "one of the most important painting themes in the cultural history of East Asia". Over time, Chinese and Japanese artists have added other recurring elements to their depictions of the Orchid Pavilion Gathering not mentioned in the , such as saucers in the shape of lotus leaves to carry the goblets of rice wine down the stream and the presence of a young boy stealing a sip of wine.
Notes
Citations
References
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
English translation of the ''Lantingji xu'' at Wikisource
Works related to Wang Xizhiat the
Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met, is an Encyclopedic museum, encyclopedic art museum in New York City. By floor area, it is the List of largest museums, third-largest museum in the world and the List of larg ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wang, Xizhi
4th-century births
4th-century deaths
4th-century Chinese calligraphers
4th-century Chinese writers
Artists from Shaoxing
Jin dynasty (266–420) calligraphers
Jin dynasty (266–420) generals
Politicians from Linyi
Politicians from Shaoxing
Writers from Linyi
Writers from Shaoxing
Wang clan of Langya