Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a
historical
History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some theorists categ ...
and geographical region of modern-day
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
. It is situated north of the
Lower Danube
The Danube ( ; see also other names) is the second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest south into the Black Sea. A large and historically important r ...
and south of the
Southern Carpathians
The Southern Carpathians (also known as the Transylvanian Alps; ; ) are a group of mountain ranges located in southern Romania. They cover the part of the Carpathian Mountains located between the Prahova River in the east and the Timiș and ...
. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections,
Muntenia
Muntenia (, also known in English as Greater Wallachia) is a historical region of Romania, part of Wallachia (also, sometimes considered Wallachia proper, as ''Muntenia'', ''Țara Românească'', and the rarely used ''Valahia'' are synonyms in Ro ...
(Greater Wallachia) and
Oltenia
Oltenia (), also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions – with the alternative Latin names , , and between 1718 and 1739 – is a historical province and geographical region of Romania in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Da ...
(Lesser Wallachia).
Dobruja
Dobruja or Dobrudja (; or ''Dobrudža''; , or ; ; Dobrujan Tatar: ''Tomrîğa''; Ukrainian language, Ukrainian and ) is a Geography, geographical and historical region in Southeastern Europe that has been divided since the 19th century betw ...
could sometimes be considered a third section due to its proximity and
brief rule over it. Wallachia as a whole is sometimes referred to as Muntenia through identification with the larger of the two traditional sections.
Wallachia was founded as a
principality
A principality (or sometimes princedom) is a type of monarchy, monarchical state or feudalism, feudal territory ruled by a prince or princess. It can be either a sovereign state or a constituent part of a larger political entity. The term "prin ...
in the early 14th century by
Basarab I after a rebellion against
Charles I of Hungary, although the first mention of the territory of Wallachia west of the river
Olt dates to a charter given to the
voivode
Voivode ( ), also spelled voivod, voievod or voevod and also known as vaivode ( ), voivoda, vojvoda, vaivada or wojewoda, is a title denoting a military leader or warlord in Central, Southeastern and Eastern Europe in use since the Early Mid ...
Seneslau in 1246 by
Béla IV of Hungary
Béla IV (1206 – 3 May 1270) was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1235 and 1270, and Duke of Styria from 1254 to 1258. As the oldest son of Andrew II of Hungary, King Andrew II, he was crowned upon the initiative of a group ...
. In 1417, Wallachia was forced to accept the
suzerainty
A suzerain (, from Old French "above" + "supreme, chief") is a person, state (polity)">state or polity who has supremacy and dominant influence over the foreign policy">polity.html" ;"title="state (polity)">state or polity">state (polity)">st ...
of the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
;
this lasted until the 19th century.
In 1859, Wallachia united with
Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
to form the
United Principalities, which adopted the name ''Romania'' in 1866 and officially became the
Kingdom of Romania
The Kingdom of Romania () was a constitutional monarchy that existed from with the crowning of prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as King of Romania, King Carol I of Romania, Carol I (thus beginning the Romanian royal family), until 1947 wit ...
in 1881. Later, following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the
resolution of the elected representatives of Romanians in 1918,
Bukovina
Bukovina or ; ; ; ; , ; see also other languages. is a historical region at the crossroads of Central and Eastern Europe. It is located on the northern slopes of the central Eastern Carpathians and the adjoining plains, today divided betwe ...
,
Transylvania
Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
and parts of
Banat
Banat ( , ; ; ; ) is a geographical and Historical regions of Central Europe, historical region located in the Pannonian Basin that straddles Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. It is divided among three countries: the eastern part lie ...
,
Crișana, and
Maramureș were
allocated to the Kingdom of Romania, thereby forming the modern Romanian state.
Etymology
The name ''Wallachia'' is an
exonym
An endonym (also known as autonym ) is a common, name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language, or dialect, meaning that it is used inside a particular group or linguistic community to identify or designate them ...
, generally not used by Romanians themselves, who used the denomination "Țara Românească" – Romanian Country or Romanian Land, although it does appear in some Romanian texts as ''Valahia'' or ''Vlahia''. It derives from the term ''
walhaz'' used by
Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples were tribal groups who lived in Northern Europe in Classical antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. In modern scholarship, they typically include not only the Roman-era ''Germani'' who lived in both ''Germania'' and parts of ...
and
Early Slavs
The early Slavs were speakers of Indo-European languages, Indo-European dialects
who lived during the Migration Period and the Early Middle Ages (approximately from the 5th to the 10th centuries AD) in Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Ea ...
to refer to Romans and other speakers of foreign languages. In
Northwestern Europe
Northwestern Europe, or Northwest Europe, is a loosely defined subregion of Europe, overlapping Northern and Western Europe. The term is used in geographic, history, and military contexts.
Geographic definitions
Geographically, Northwestern ...
, this gave rise to
Wales
Wales ( ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by the Irish Sea to the north and west, England to the England–Wales border, east, the Bristol Channel to the south, and the Celtic ...
,
Cornwall
Cornwall (; or ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in South West England. It is also one of the Celtic nations and the homeland of the Cornish people. The county is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, ...
, and
Wallonia
Wallonia ( ; ; or ), officially the Walloon Region ( ; ), is one of the three communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, regions of Belgium—along with Flemish Region, Flanders and Brussels. Covering the southern portion of the c ...
, among others, while in
Southeast Europe
Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe is a geographical sub-region of Europe, consisting primarily of the region of the Balkans, as well as adjacent regions and Archipelago, archipelagos. There are overlapping and conflicting definitions of t ...
it was used to designate
Romance-speakers, and subsequently shepherds in general.
In
Slavonic texts of the
Early Middle Ages
The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages (historiography), Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th to the 10th century. They marked the start o ...
, the name ' ( or "Hungaro-Wallachian Land") was also used as a designation for the region. The term, translated in Romanian as "Ungrovalahia", remained in use up to the modern era in a religious context, referring to the
Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan seat of Hungaro-Wallachia, in contrast to
Thessalian or
Great Vlachia in Greece or Small Wallachia (Mala Vlaška) in Serbia. The Romanian-language designations of the state were
Muntenia
Muntenia (, also known in English as Greater Wallachia) is a historical region of Romania, part of Wallachia (also, sometimes considered Wallachia proper, as ''Muntenia'', ''Țara Românească'', and the rarely used ''Valahia'' are synonyms in Ro ...
(The Land of Mountains), Țara Rumânească (the Romanian Land), Valahia, and, rarely, România. The spelling variant ''Țara Românească'' was adopted in official documents by the mid-19th century; however, the version with ''u'' remained common in local dialects until much later.
For long periods after the 14th century, Wallachia was referred to as ' () by
Bulgaria
Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
n sources, ' () by
Serbia
, image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg
, national_motto =
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg
, national_anthem = ()
, image_map =
, map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
n sources, ' () by
Ukrainian sources, and ' or ' by
German-speaking (most notably
Transylvanian Saxon) sources. The traditional
Hungarian name for Wallachia is ', literally "Snowy lowlands", the older form of which is ', meaning "Land beyond the snowy mountains" ("snowy mountains" refers to the
Southern Carpathians (the Transylvanian Alps)); its translation into Latin, ' was used in the official royal documents of the Kingdom of Hungary. In
Ottoman Turkish
Ottoman Turkish (, ; ) was the standardized register of the Turkish language in the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed extensively, in all aspects, from Arabic and Persian. It was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet. ...
, the term ', or simply ' , appears. In old Albanian, the name was "
Gogënia", which was used to denote non-Albanian speakers.
Arabic chronicles from the 13th century had used the name of Wallachia instead of
Bulgaria
Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
. They gave the coordinates of Wallachia and specified that Wallachia was named ' and the dwellers ' or '.
The area of
Oltenia
Oltenia (), also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions – with the alternative Latin names , , and between 1718 and 1739 – is a historical province and geographical region of Romania in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Da ...
in Wallachia was also known in Turkish as ''Kara-Eflak'' ("Black Wallachia") and ''Küçük-Eflak'' ("Little Wallachia"),
while the former has also been used for Moldavia.
History
Ancient times
In the
Second Dacian War (AD 105) western Oltenia became part of the
Roman province
The Roman provinces (, pl. ) were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was ruled by a Roman appointed as Roman g ...
of
Dacia
Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians, its core in Transylvania, stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It thus ro ...
, with parts of later Wallachia included in the
Moesia Inferior
Moesia (; Latin: ''Moesia''; ) was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans south of the Danube River. As a Roman domain Moesia was administered at first by the governor of Noricum as 'Civitates of Moesia and Triballi ...
province. The Roman ''
limes'' was initially built along the
Olt River
The Olt ( Romanian and Hungarian; ; or ', , ''Alytos'') is a river in Romania. It is long, and its basin area is . It is the longest river flowing exclusively through Romania. Its average discharge at the mouth is . It originates in the Hă ...
in 119 before being moved slightly to the east in the second century, during which time it stretched from the
Danube
The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...
up to
Rucăr in the Carpathians. The Roman line fell back to the Olt in 245 and, in 271, the Romans pulled out of the region.
The area was subject to
Romanization
In linguistics, romanization is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Latin script, Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and tra ...
also during the
Migration Period
The Migration Period ( 300 to 600 AD), also known as the Barbarian Invasions, was a period in European history marked by large-scale migrations that saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and subsequent settlement of its former territories ...
, when most of present-day
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
was also invaded by
Goths
The Goths were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe. They were first reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, living north of the Danube in what is ...
and
Sarmatians
The Sarmatians (; ; Latin: ) were a large confederation of Ancient Iranian peoples, ancient Iranian Eurasian nomads, equestrian nomadic peoples who dominated the Pontic–Caspian steppe, Pontic steppe from about the 5th century BCE to the 4t ...
known as the
Chernyakhov culture, followed by waves of other
nomad
Nomads are communities without fixed habitation who regularly move to and from areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the population of nomadic pa ...
s. In 328, the Romans built a
bridge
A bridge is a structure built to Span (engineering), span a physical obstacle (such as a body of water, valley, road, or railway) without blocking the path underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle, whi ...
between
Sucidava and
Oescus (near
Gigen) which indicates that there was a significant trade with the peoples north of the Danube. A short period of Roman rule in the area is attested under Emperor
Constantine the Great
Constantine I (27 February 27222 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He played a Constantine the Great and Christianity, pivotal ro ...
, after he attacked the Goths (who had settled north of the Danube) in 332. The period of Goth rule ended when the
Huns
The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th centuries AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was par ...
arrived in the
Pannonian Basin
The Pannonian Basin, with the term Carpathian Basin being sometimes preferred in Hungarian literature, is a large sedimentary basin situated in southeastern Central Europe. After the Treaty of Trianon following World War I, the geomorpholog ...
and, under
Attila
Attila ( or ; ), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in early 453. He was also the leader of an empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans, and Gepids, among others, in Central Europe, C ...
, attacked and destroyed some 170 settlements on both sides of the Danube.
Early Middle Ages
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
influence is evident during the fifth to sixth century, such as the site at
Ipotești–Cândești culture, but from the second half of the sixth century and in the seventh century,
Slavs
The Slavs or Slavic people are groups of people who speak Slavic languages. Slavs are geographically distributed throughout the northern parts of Eurasia; they predominantly inhabit Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, and ...
crossed the territory of Wallachia and settled in it, on their way to Byzantium, occupying the southern bank of the Danube. In 593, the Byzantine commander-in-chief
Priscus defeated Slavs,
Avars and
Gepids
The Gepids (; ) were an East Germanic tribes, East Germanic tribe who lived in the area of modern Romania, Hungary, and Serbia, roughly between the Tisza, Sava, and Carpathian Mountains. They were said to share the religion and language of the G ...
on future Wallachian territory, and, in 602, Slavs suffered a crucial defeat in the area;
Flavius Mauricius Tiberius, who ordered his army to be deployed north of the Danube, encountered his troops' strong opposition.

From its establishment in 681 to approximately the
Hungarians
Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are an Ethnicity, ethnic group native to Hungary (), who share a common Culture of Hungary, culture, Hungarian language, language and History of Hungary, history. They also have a notable presence in former pa ...
' conquest of
Transylvania
Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
at the end of the tenth century, the
First Bulgarian Empire
The First Bulgarian Empire (; was a medieval state that existed in Southeastern Europe between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. It was founded in 680–681 after part of the Bulgars, led by Asparuh of Bulgaria, Asparuh, moved south to the northe ...
controlled the territory of Wallachia. With the decline and subsequent
Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria (from the second half of the tenth century up to 1018), Wallachia came under the control of the
Pechenegs
The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks, , Middle Turkic languages, Middle Turkic: , , , , , , ka, პაჭანიკი, , , ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Pečenezi, separator=/, Печенези, also known as Pecheneg Turks were a semi-nomadic Turkic peopl ...
,
Turkic peoples
Turkic peoples are a collection of diverse ethnic groups of West Asia, West, Central Asia, Central, East Asia, East, and North Asia as well as parts of Europe, who speak Turkic languages.. "Turkic peoples, any of various peoples whose members ...
who extended their rule west through the tenth and 11th century, until they were defeated around 1091, when the
Cumans
The Cumans or Kumans were a Turkic people, Turkic nomadic people from Central Asia comprising the western branch of the Cumania, Cuman–Kipchak confederation who spoke the Cuman language. They are referred to as Polovtsians (''Polovtsy'') in Ru ...
of southern Ruthenia took control of the lands of Wallachia. Beginning with the tenth century, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and later Western sources mention the existence of small polities, possibly peopled by, among others,
Vlachs
Vlach ( ), also Wallachian and many other variants, is a term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in Southeast Europe—south of the Danube (the Balkan peninsula ...
led by ''
knyaz
A , also , ''knjaz'' or (), is a historical Slavs, Slavic title, used both as a royal and noble title in different times. It is usually translated into English language, English as 'prince', 'king' or 'duke', depending on specific historical c ...
es'' and ''
voivode
Voivode ( ), also spelled voivod, voievod or voevod and also known as vaivode ( ), voivoda, vojvoda, vaivada or wojewoda, is a title denoting a military leader or warlord in Central, Southeastern and Eastern Europe in use since the Early Mid ...
s''.
In 1241, during the
Mongol invasion of Europe
From the 1220s to the 1240s, the Mongol Empire, Mongols conquered the Turkic peoples, Turkic states of Volga Bulgaria, Cumania and Iranian peoples, Iranian state of Alania, and various principalities in Eastern Europe. Following this, they began ...
, Cuman domination was ended—a direct Mongol rule over Wallachia was not attested.
[Giurescu, p. 39] Part of Wallachia was probably briefly disputed by the
Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946 and was a key part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1526-1918. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the Coro ...
and
Bulgarians
Bulgarians (, ) are a nation and South Slavs, South Slavic ethnic group native to Bulgaria and its neighbouring region, who share a common Bulgarian ancestry, culture, history and language. They form the majority of the population in Bulgaria, ...
in the following period,
but it appears that the severe weakening of Hungarian authority during the Mongol attacks contributed to the establishment of the new and stronger polities attested in Wallachia for the following decades.
Creation
One of the first written pieces of evidence of local voivodes is in connection with
Litovoi (1272), who ruled over the land on each side of the Carpathians (including
Hațeg Country in Transylvania), and refused to pay
tribute
A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of lands which the state con ...
to
Ladislaus IV of Hungary. His successor was his brother
Bărbat
Bărbat was the brother and successor of ''voivode'' Litovoi whose territory had comprised northern Oltenia (Romania).
War with Hungary
In 1277 (or between 1277 and 1280), Litovoi renounced fealty to king Ladislaus IV of Hungary (1272–1290) ...
(1285–1288). The continuing weakening of the Hungarian state by further Mongol invasions (1285–1319) and the fall of the
Árpád dynasty opened the way for the unification of Wallachian polities, and independence from Hungarian rule.

Wallachia's creation, held by local traditions to have been the work of one ''
Radu Negru'' (Black Radu), is historically connected with
Basarab I of Wallachia (1310–1352), who rebelled against
Charles I of Hungary and took up rule on either side of the Olt, establishing his residence in
Câmpulung as the first ruler of the
House of Basarab
The House of Basarab (sometimes spelled as Bazarab, ) was a ruling family that established the Principality of Wallachia, giving the country its first line of List of rulers of Wallachia, Princes, one closely related with the House of Bogdan-Mu ...
. Basarab refused to grant Hungary the lands of
Făgăraș,
Almaș and the
Banate of Severin, defeated Charles in the
Battle of Posada (1330), and, according to Romanian historian
Ștefan Ștefănescu, extended his lands to the east, to comprise lands as far as
Kiliya in the
Budjak
Budjak, also known as Budzhak, is a historical region that was part of Bessarabia from 1812 to 1940. Situated along the Black Sea, between the Danube and Dniester rivers, this #Ethnic groups and demographics, multi-ethnic region covers an area ...
(reportedly providing the origin of ''
Bessarabia
Bessarabia () is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Bessarabia lies within modern-day Moldova, with the Budjak region covering the southern coa ...
''); the supposed rule over the latter was not preserved by the princes that followed, as Kilia was under the rule of the
Nogais c. 1334.
There is evidence that the
Second Bulgarian Empire
The Second Bulgarian Empire (; ) was a medieval Bulgarians, Bulgarian state that existed between 1185 and 1422. A successor to the First Bulgarian Empire, it reached the peak of its power under Tsars Kaloyan of Bulgaria, Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II ...
ruled at least nominally the Wallachian lands up to the Rucăr–
Bran
Bran, also known as miller's bran, is the component of a Cereal, cereal grain consisting of the hard layersthe combined aleurone and Fruit anatomy#Pericarp layers, pericarpsurrounding the endosperm. Maize, Corn (maize) bran also includes the p ...
corridor as late as the late 14th century. In a charter by
Radu I, the Wallachian voivode requests that
tsar
Tsar (; also spelled ''czar'', ''tzar'', or ''csar''; ; ; sr-Cyrl-Latn, цар, car) is a title historically used by Slavic monarchs. The term is derived from the Latin word '' caesar'', which was intended to mean ''emperor'' in the Euro ...
Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria order his customs officers at Rucăr and the
Dâmboviţa River bridge to collect tax following the law. The presence of Bulgarian customs officers at the
Carpathians
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe and Southeast Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains ...
indicates a Bulgarian suzerainty over those lands, though Radu's imperative tone hints at a strong and increasing Wallachian autonomy.
The medieval structure of Wallachia was modelled after the Bulgarian one, including the adoption of Old Church Slavonic feudal terminology such as - inherited land. Under
Radu I and his successor
Dan I, the realms in Transylvania and Severin continued to be disputed with Hungary. Basarab was succeeded by
Nicholas Alexander, followed by
Vladislav I. Vladislav attacked Transylvania after
Louis I Louis I may refer to:
Cardinals
* Louis I, Cardinal of Guise (1527–1578)
Counts
* Ludwig I, Count of Württemberg (c. 1098–1158)
* Louis I of Blois (1172–1205)
* Louis I of Flanders (1304–1346)
* Louis I of Châtillon (died 13 ...
occupied lands south of the
Danube
The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...
, conceded to recognize him as overlord in 1368, but rebelled again in the same year; his rule also witnessed the first confrontation between Wallachia and the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
(a battle in which Vladislav was allied with
Ivan Shishman).
1400–1600
Mircea the Elder to Radu the Great

As the entire
Balkans
The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...
became an integral part of the growing Ottoman Empire (a process that concluded with the
fall of Constantinople
The Fall of Constantinople, also known as the Conquest of Constantinople, was the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire. The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 55-da ...
to Sultan
Mehmed the Conqueror
Mehmed II (; , ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror (; ), was twice the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from August 1444 to September 1446 and then later from February 1451 to May 1481.
In Mehmed II's first reign, ...
in 1453), Wallachia became engaged in frequent confrontations in the final years of the reign of
Mircea I (r. 1386–1418). Mircea initially defeated the Ottomans in several battles, including the
Battle of Rovine in 1394, driving them away from
Dobruja
Dobruja or Dobrudja (; or ''Dobrudža''; , or ; ; Dobrujan Tatar: ''Tomrîğa''; Ukrainian language, Ukrainian and ) is a Geography, geographical and historical region in Southeastern Europe that has been divided since the 19th century betw ...
and briefly extending his rule to the
Danube Delta
The Danube Delta (, ; , ) is the second largest river delta in Europe, after the Volga Delta, and is the best preserved on the continent. Occurring where the Danube, Danube River empties into the Black Sea, most of the Danube Delta lies in Romania ...
, Dobruja and
Silistra (c. 1400–1404). He swung between alliances with
Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor
Sigismund of Luxembourg (15 February 1368 – 9 December 1437) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1433 until his death in 1437. He was elected King of Germany (King of the Romans) in 1410, and was also King of Bohemia from 1419, as well as prince-elect ...
, and
Jagiellon Poland (taking part in the
Battle of Nicopolis), and accepted a peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1417, after
Mehmed I took control of
Turnu Măgurele and
Giurgiu. The two ports remained part of the Ottoman state, with brief interruptions, until 1829. In 1418–1420,
Michael I defeated the Ottomans in Severin, only to be killed in battle by the counter-offensive; in 1422, the danger was averted for a short while when
Dan II inflicted a defeat on
Murad II with the help of
Pippo Spano.
The peace signed in 1428 inaugurated a period of internal crisis, as Dan had to defend himself against
Radu II, who led the first in a series of
boyar
A boyar or bolyar was a member of the highest rank of the feudal nobility in many Eastern European states, including Bulgaria, Kievan Rus' (and later Russia), Moldavia and Wallachia (and later Romania), Lithuania and among Baltic Germans. C ...
coalitions against established princes. Victorious in 1431 (the year when the boyar-backed
Alexander I Aldea took the throne), boyars were dealt successive blows by
Vlad II Dracul (1436–1442; 1443–1447), who nevertheless attempted to compromise between the Ottoman Sultan and the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
.

The following decade was marked by the conflict between the rival houses of
Dănești and
Drăculești. Faced with both internal and external conflict,
Vlad II Dracul reluctantly agreed to pay the
tribute
A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of lands which the state con ...
demanded of him by the Ottoman Empire, despite his affiliation with the
Order of the Dragon, a group of independent noblemen whose creed had been to repel the Ottoman invasion. As part of the tribute, the sons of
Vlad II Dracul (
Radu cel Frumos and
Vlad III Dracula) were taken into Ottoman custody. Recognizing the Christian resistance to their invasion, leaders of the Ottoman Empire released Vlad III to rule in 1448 after his father's assassination in 1447.
Known as Vlad III the Impaler or Vlad III Dracula, he immediately put to death the boyars who had conspired against his father, and was characterized as both a national hero and a cruel
tyrant
A tyrant (), in the modern English usage of the word, is an absolute ruler who is unrestrained by law, or one who has usurped a legitimate ruler's sovereignty. Often portrayed as cruel, tyrants may defend their positions by resorting to ...
. He was cheered for restoring order to a destabilized principality, yet showed no mercy toward thieves, murderers or anyone who plotted against his rule. Vlad demonstrated his intolerance for criminals by utilizing
impalement
Impalement, as a method of torture and execution, is the penetrating trauma, penetration of a human by an object such as a stake, pole, spear, or hook, often by the complete or partial perforation of the torso. It was particularly used in respon ...
as a form of execution. Vlad fiercely resisted Ottoman rule, having both repelled the Ottomans and been pushed back several times.

The
Transylvanian Saxons
The Transylvanian Saxons (; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjer Såksen'' or simply ''Soxen'', singularly ''Sox'' or ''Soax''; Transylvanian Landler dialect, Transylvanian Landler: ''Soxn'' or ''Soxisch''; ; seldom ''sa ...
were also furious with him for strengthening the borders of Wallachia, which interfered with their control of trade routes. In retaliation, the Saxons distributed grotesque poems of cruelty and other propaganda, demonizing Vlad III Dracula as a drinker of blood. These tales strongly influenced an eruption of vampiric fiction throughout the West and, in particular, Germany. They also inspired the main character in the 1897 Gothic novel ''
Dracula
''Dracula'' is an 1897 Gothic fiction, Gothic horror fiction, horror novel by Irish author Bram Stoker. The narrative is Epistolary novel, related through letters, diary entries, and newspaper articles. It has no single protagonist and opens ...
'' by
Bram Stoker
Abraham Stoker (8 November 1847 – 20 April 1912), better known by his pen name Bram Stoker, was an Irish novelist who wrote the 1897 Gothic horror novel ''Dracula''. The book is widely considered a milestone in Vampire fiction, and one of t ...
.
In 1462, Vlad III was defeated by Mehmed the Conqueror during his offensive at the
Night Attack at Târgovişte before being forced to retreat to
Târgoviște
Târgoviște (, alternatively spelled ''Tîrgoviște'') is a Municipiu, city and county seat in Dâmbovița County, Romania. It is situated north-west of Bucharest, on the right bank of the Ialomița (river), Ialomița River.
Târgoviște was ...
and accepting to pay an increased tribute. Meanwhile, Vlad III faced parallel conflicts with his brother, Radu cel Frumos, (r. 1437/1439–1475), and
Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân. This led to the conquest of Wallachia by Radu, who would face his own struggles with the resurgent Vlad III and Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân during his 11-year reign. Subsequently,
Radu IV the Great (Radu cel Mare, who ruled 1495–1508) reached several compromises with the boyars, ensuring a period of internal stability that contrasted his clash with
Bogdan III the One-Eyed of Moldavia.
Mihnea cel Rău to Petru Cercel
The late 15th century saw the ascension of the powerful
Craiovești family, virtually independent rulers of the
Oltenia
Oltenia (), also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions – with the alternative Latin names , , and between 1718 and 1739 – is a historical province and geographical region of Romania in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Da ...
n
banat
Banat ( , ; ; ; ) is a geographical and Historical regions of Central Europe, historical region located in the Pannonian Basin that straddles Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. It is divided among three countries: the eastern part lie ...
, who sought Ottoman support in their rivalry with
Mihnea cel Rău (1508–1510) and replaced him with
Vlăduț. After the latter proved to be hostile to the bans, the House of Basarab formally ended with the rise of
Neagoe Basarab
Neagoe Basarab (; – 15 September 1521) was the Voivode (Prince) of Wallachia between 1512 and 1521. Born into the boyar family of the Craiovești (his reign marks the climax of the family's political influence) as the son of Pârvu Craioves ...
, a Craioveşti. Neagoe's peaceful rule (1512–1521) was noted for its cultural aspects (the building of the
Curtea de Argeş Cathedral and
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...
influences). It was also a period of increased influence for the
Saxon
The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
merchants in
Brașov
Brașov (, , ; , also ''Brasau''; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Kruhnen'') is a city in Transylvania, Romania and the county seat (i.e. administrative centre) of Brașov County.
According to the 2021 Romanian census, ...
and
Sibiu
Sibiu ( , , , Hungarian: ''Nagyszeben'', , Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'' or ''Hermestatt'') is a city in central Romania, situated in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles th ...
, and of Wallachia's alliance with
Louis II of Hungary
Louis II (; ; ; ; 1 July 1506 – 29 August 1526) was King of Hungary, King of Croatia, Croatia and King of Bohemia, Bohemia from 1516 to 1526. He died during the Battle of Mohács fighting the Ottoman Empire, Ottomans, whose victory led to the Ot ...
. Under
Teodosie, the country was again under a four-month-long Ottoman occupation, a military administration that seemed to be an attempt to create a Wallachian ''
Pashaluk''.
[Ștefănescu, pp. 144–145] This danger rallied all boyars in support of
Radu de la Afumaţi (four rules between 1522 and 1529), who lost the battle after an agreement between the Craiovești and Sultan
Süleyman the Magnificent; Prince Radu eventually confirmed Süleyman's position as suzerain and agreed to pay an even higher tribute.
Ottoman suzerainty remained virtually unchallenged throughout the following 90 years.
Radu Paisie
Radu VII Paisie, officially Radul (Old Church Slavonic in Romania, Church Slavonic: Радул воєвода; ), also known as Radu vodă Măjescul, Radu vodă Călugărul, Petru I, and Petru de la Argeș ( 1500Gheonea, p. 50 – after 1545), wa ...
, who was deposed by Süleyman in 1545, ceded the port of
Brăila
Brăila (, also , ) is a city in Muntenia, eastern Romania, a port on the Danube and the capital of Brăila County. The Sud-Est (development region), ''Sud-Est'' Regional Development Agency is located in Brăila.
According to the 2021 Romanian ...
to the Ottoman administration in the same year. His successor
Mircea Ciobanul (1545–1554; 1558–1559), a prince without any claim to noble heritage, was imposed on the throne and consequently agreed to a decrease in autonomy (increasing
tax
A tax is a mandatory financial charge or levy imposed on an individual or legal entity by a governmental organization to support government spending and public expenditures collectively or to regulate and reduce negative externalities. Tax co ...
es and carrying out an armed intervention in Transylvania – supporting the pro-Turkish
John Zápolya
John Zápolya or Szapolyai (; ; ; ; 1487 – 22 July 1540), was King of Hungary (as John I) from 1526 to 1540. His rule was disputed by Archduke Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand I, who also claimed the title King of Hungary. He wa ...
). Conflicts between boyar families became stringent after the rule of
Pătrașcu the Good, and boyar ascendancy over rulers was obvious under
Petru the Younger (1559–1568; a reign dominated by
Doamna Chiajna and marked by huge increases in taxes),
Mihnea Turcitul, and
Petru Cercel.
The Ottoman Empire increasingly relied on Wallachia and Moldavia for the supply and maintenance of its
military forces; the
local army, however, soon disappeared due to the increased costs and the much more obvious efficiency of
mercenary
A mercenary is a private individual who joins an armed conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any other official military. Mercenaries fight for money or other forms of payment rather t ...
troops.
17th century
Initially profiting from Ottoman support,
Michael the Brave
Michael the Brave ( or ; 1558 – 9 August 1601), born as Mihai Pătrașcu, was the Prince of Wallachia (as Michael II, 1593–1601), Prince of Moldavia (1600) and ''de facto'' ruler of Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711), Transylvani ...
ascended to the throne in 1593, and attacked the troops of
Murad III
Murad III (; ; 4 July 1546 – 16 January 1595) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1574 until his death in 1595. His rule saw battles with the Habsburg monarchy, Habsburgs and exhausting wars with the Safavid Iran, Safavids. The long-inde ...
north and south of the Danube in an alliance with Transylvania's
Sigismund Báthory and Moldavia's
Aron Vodă (see
Battle of Călugăreni). He soon placed himself under the suzerainty of
Rudolf II
Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608). He was a member of the H ...
, the
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans (disambiguation), Emperor of the Romans (; ) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period (; ), was the ruler and h ...
, and, in 1599–1600, intervened in
Transylvania
Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
against
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
's
king
King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
Sigismund III Vasa
Sigismund III Vasa (, ; 20 June 1566 – 30 April 1632
N.S.) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1587 to 1632 and, as Sigismund, King of Sweden from 1592 to 1599. He was the first Polish sovereign from the House of Vasa. Re ...
, placing the region under his authority; his brief rule also extended to
Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
later in the following year. For a brief period, Michael the Brave ruled (in a personal, but not formal, union) most of the territories where Romanians lived, rebuilding the base of the ancient Kingdom of
Dacia
Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians, its core in Transylvania, stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It thus ro ...
. The rule of Michael the Brave, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states, was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by
Nicolae Bălcescu. Following Michael's downfall, Wallachia was occupied by the Polish–Moldavian army of
Simion Movilă (see
Moldavian Magnate Wars), who held the region until 1602, and was subject to
Nogai attacks in the same year.

The last stage in the
Growth of the Ottoman Empire brought increased pressures on Wallachia: political control was accompanied by Ottoman economical hegemony, the discarding of the capital in
Târgoviște
Târgoviște (, alternatively spelled ''Tîrgoviște'') is a Municipiu, city and county seat in Dâmbovița County, Romania. It is situated north-west of Bucharest, on the right bank of the Ialomița (river), Ialomița River.
Târgoviște was ...
in favour of
Bucharest
Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
(closer to the Ottoman border, and a rapidly growing trade center), the establishment of
serfdom
Serfdom was the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude with similarities to and differences from slavery. It developed du ...
under Michael the Brave as a measure to increase
manorial revenues, and the decrease in the importance of low-ranking boyars (threatened with extinction, they took part in the ''
seimeni'' rebellion of 1655). Furthermore, the growing importance of appointment to high office in front of land ownership brought about an influx of
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
and
Levant
The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
ine families, a process already resented by locals during the rules of
Radu Mihnea in the early 17th century.
Matei Basarab
Matei Basarab (; 1588, Brâncoveni, Olt – 9 April 1654, Bucharest) was the voivode (prince) of Wallachia from 1632 to 1654.
Reign
Much of Matei's reign was spent fighting off incursions from Moldavia, which he successfully accomplished in 1 ...
, a boyar appointee, brought a long period of relative peace (1632–1654), with the noted exception of the 1653
Battle of Finta, fought between Wallachians and the troops of Moldavian prince
Vasile Lupu—ending in disaster for the latter, who was replaced with Prince Matei's favourite,
Gheorghe Ștefan, on the throne in
Iași
Iași ( , , ; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the Cities in Romania, third largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical ...
. A close alliance between Gheorghe Ștefan and Matei's successor
Constantin Șerban was maintained by Transylvania's
George II Rákóczi, but their designs for independence from Ottoman rule were crushed by the troops of
Mehmed IV in 1658–1659. The reigns of
Gheorghe Ghica and
Grigore I Ghica, the sultan's favourites, signified attempts to prevent such incidents; however, they were also the onset of a violent clash between the
Băleanu and
Cantacuzino boyar families, which was to mark Wallachia's history until the 1680s. The Cantacuzinos, threatened by the alliance between the Băleanus and the
Ghicas, backed their own choice of princes (
Antonie Vodă din Popești
This is a list of princes of Wallachia, from the first mention of a medieval polity situated between the Southern Carpathians and the Danube until the union with Moldavia in 1859, which led to the creation of Romania.
Notes
Dynastic rule is hard ...
and
George Ducas
George Ducas ( – 31 March 1685) was the prince (List of monarchs of Moldavia, voivode) of Moldavia (1665–1666, 1668–1672, 1678–1684) and the List of Wallachian rulers, prince of Wallachia (1674–1678). He also served as the hetman of ...
) before promoting themselves—with the ascension of
Șerban Cantacuzino
Șerban Cantacuzino (), (1634/1640 – 29 October 1688) was a List of rulers of Wallachia, Prince of Wallachia between 1678 and 1688.
Biography
Șerban Cantacuzino was a member of the Romanian branch of the Cantacuzino family, Cantacuzino noble ...
(1678–1688).
Russo-Turkish Wars and the Phanariotes

Wallachia became a target for
Habsburg
The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout Europe d ...
incursions during the last stages of the
Great Turkish War
The Great Turkish War () or The Last Crusade, also called in Ottoman sources The Disaster Years (), was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League (1684), Holy League consisting of the Holy Roman Empire, Polish–Lith ...
around 1690, when the ruler
Constantin Brâncoveanu secretly and unsuccessfully negotiated an anti-Ottoman coalition. Brâncoveanu's reign (1688–1714), noted for its late
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...
cultural achievements (see
Brâncovenesc style), also coincided with the rise of
Imperial Russia
Imperial is that which relates to an empire, emperor/empress, or imperialism.
Imperial or The Imperial may also refer to:
Places
United States
* Imperial, California
* Imperial, Missouri
* Imperial, Nebraska
* Imperial, Pennsylvania
* ...
under Tsar
Peter the Great
Peter I (, ;
– ), better known as Peter the Great, was the Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Prince of all Russia, Tsar of all Russia from 1682 and the first Emperor of Russia, Emperor of all Russia from 1721 until his death in 1725. He reigned j ...
—he was approached by the latter during the
Russo-Turkish War of 1710–11, and lost his throne and life sometime after sultan
Ahmed III caught news of the negotiations. Despite his denunciation of Brâncoveanu's policies,
Ștefan Cantacuzino attached himself to Habsburg projects and opened the country to the armies of
Prince Eugene of Savoy
Prince Eugene Francis of Savoy-Carignano (18 October 1663 – 21 April 1736), better known as Prince Eugene, was a distinguished Generalfeldmarschall, field marshal in the Army of the Holy Roman Empire and of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty durin ...
; he was himself deposed and executed in 1716.
Immediately following the deposition of Prince Ștefan, the Ottomans renounced the purely nominal
elective system (which had by then already witnessed the decrease in importance of the
Boyar Divan over the sultan's decision), and princes of the two
Danubian Principalities were appointed from the
Phanariotes of
Constantinople
Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
. Inaugurated by
Nicholas Mavrocordatos in Moldavia after
Dimitrie Cantemir
Dimitrie or Demetrius; Cantemir (; ; 26 October 1673 – 21 August 1723), also known by other spellings, was a Moldavian prince, statesman, and man of letters. He twice served as voivode of Moldavia (March–April 1693 and 1710–1711). Durin ...
, Phanariote rule was brought to Wallachia in 1715 by the very same ruler. The tense relations between boyars and princes brought a decrease in the number of taxed people (as a
privilege gained by the former), a subsequent increase in total taxes, and the enlarged powers of a boyar circle in the Divan.
In parallel, Wallachia became the battleground in a succession of wars between the Ottomans on one side and Russia or the Habsburg monarchy on the other. Mavrocordatos himself was deposed by a boyar rebellion, and arrested by Habsburg troops during the
Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18, as the Ottomans had to concede
Oltenia
Oltenia (), also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions – with the alternative Latin names , , and between 1718 and 1739 – is a historical province and geographical region of Romania in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Da ...
to
Charles VI of Austria (the
Treaty of Passarowitz). The region, organized as the
Banat of Craiova and subject to an
enlightened absolutist rule that soon disenchanted local boyars, was returned to Wallachia in 1739 (the
Treaty of Belgrade, upon the close of the
Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39)). Prince
Constantine Mavrocordatos, who oversaw the new change in borders, was also responsible for the effective abolition of
serfdom
Serfdom was the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude with similarities to and differences from slavery. It developed du ...
in 1746 (which put a stop to the exodus of peasants into
Transylvania
Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
); during this period, the
ban of Oltenia moved his residence from
Craiova
Craiova (, also , ) is the largest city in southwestern Romania, List of Romanian cities, the seventh largest city in the country and the capital of Dolj County, situated near the east bank of the river Jiu River, Jiu in central Oltenia.
It i ...
to
Bucharest
Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
, signalling, alongside Mavrocordatos' order to merge his personal
treasury
A treasury is either
*A government department related to finance and taxation, a finance ministry; in a business context, corporate treasury.
*A place or location where treasure, such as currency or precious items are kept. These can be ...
with that of the country, a move towards
centralism.

In 1768, during the
Fifth Russo-Turkish War, Wallachia was placed under its first Russian occupation (helped along by the rebellion of
Pârvu Cantacuzino). The
Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) allowed Russia to intervene in favour of
Eastern Orthodox
Eastern Orthodoxy, otherwise known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity or Byzantine Christianity, is one of the three main Branches of Christianity, branches of Chalcedonian Christianity, alongside Catholic Church, Catholicism and Protestantism ...
Ottoman subjects, curtailing Ottoman pressures—including the decrease in sums owed as
tribute
A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of lands which the state con ...
—and, in time, relatively increasing internal stability while opening Wallachia to more Russian interventions.

Habsburg troops, under
Prince Josias of Coburg, again entered the country during the
Russo-Turkish-Austrian War, deposing
Nicholas Mavrogenes in 1789. A period of crisis followed the Ottoman recovery: Oltenia was devastated by the expeditions of
Osman Pazvantoğlu, a powerful rebellious
pasha
Pasha (; ; ) was a high rank in the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors, generals, dignitary, dignitaries, and others. ''Pasha'' was also one of the highest titles in the 20th-century Kingdom of ...
whose raids even caused Prince
Constantine Hangerli to lose his life on suspicion of treason (1799), and
Alexander Mourousis to renounce his throne (1801). In 1806, the
Russo-Turkish War of 1806–12 was partly instigated by the
Porte's deposition of
Constantine Ypsilantis in Bucharest—in tune with the
Napoleonic Wars
{{Infobox military conflict
, conflict = Napoleonic Wars
, partof = the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
, image = Napoleonic Wars (revision).jpg
, caption = Left to right, top to bottom:Battl ...
, it was instigated by the
French Empire, and also showed the impact of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (with its permissive attitude towards Russian political influence in the
Danubian Principalities); the war brought the invasion of
Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich. After the
Peace of Bucharest, the rule of
Jean Georges Caradja, although remembered for a major
plague epidemic, was notable for its cultural and industrial ventures. During the period, Wallachia increased its strategic importance for most European states interested in supervising Russian expansion; consulates were opened in Bucharest, having an indirect but major impact on Wallachian economy through the protection they extended to ''
Sudiți'' traders (who soon competed successfully against local guilds).
From Wallachia to Romania
Early 19th century
The death of prince
Alexander Soutzos in 1821, coinciding with the outbreak of the
Greek War of Independence
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. In 1826, the Greeks were assisted ...
, established a boyar
regency
In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...
which attempted to block the arrival of
Scarlat Callimachi to his throne in Bucharest. The parallel
uprising in Oltenia, carried out by the
Pandur leader
Tudor Vladimirescu, although aimed at overthrowing the ascendancy of
Greeks
Greeks or Hellenes (; , ) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, southern Albania, Greeks in Turkey#History, Anatolia, parts of Greeks in Italy, Italy and Egyptian Greeks, Egypt, and to a l ...
, compromised with the Greek revolutionaries in the
Filiki Eteria
Filiki Eteria () or Society of Friends () was a secret political and revolutionary organization founded in 1814 in Odesa, Odessa, whose purpose was to overthrow Ottoman Empire, Ottoman rule in Ottoman Greece, Greece and establish an Independenc ...
and allied itself with the regents, while seeking Russian support (see also:
Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire).
On 21 March 1821 Vladimirescu entered Bucharest. For the following weeks, relations between him and his allies worsened, especially after he sought an agreement with the Ottomans; Eteria's leader
Alexander Ypsilantis
Alexandros Ypsilantis (12 December 1792 – 31 January 1828) was a Greek nationalist politician who was member of a prominent Phanariot Greeks, Phanariot Greek family, a prince of the Danubian Principalities, a senior officer of the Imperial R ...
, who had established himself in Moldavia and, after May, in northern Wallachia, viewed the alliance as broken—he had Vladimirescu executed, and faced the Ottoman intervention without Pandur or Russian backing, suffering major defeats in Bucharest and
Drăgășani (before retreating to
Austrian custody in
Transylvania
Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
). These violent events, which had seen the majority of Phanariotes siding with Ypsilantis, made
Sultan
Sultan (; ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be use ...
Mahmud II
Mahmud II (, ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms ...
place the Principalities under its occupation (evicted by a request of several European powers), and sanction the end of Phanariote rules: in Wallachia, the first prince to be considered a local one after 1715 was
Grigore IV Ghica. Although the new system was confirmed for the rest of Wallachia's existence as a state, Ghica's rule was abruptly ended by the devastating
Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829.
The 1829
Treaty of Adrianople placed Wallachia and Moldavia under Russian military rule, without overturning Ottoman
suzerainty
A suzerain (, from Old French "above" + "supreme, chief") is a person, state (polity)">state or polity who has supremacy and dominant influence over the foreign policy">polity.html" ;"title="state (polity)">state or polity">state (polity)">st ...
, awarding them the first common institutions and semblance of a
constitution
A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organization or other type of entity, and commonly determines how that entity is to be governed.
When these pri ...
(see
Regulamentul Organic). Wallachia was returned ownership of
Brăila
Brăila (, also , ) is a city in Muntenia, eastern Romania, a port on the Danube and the capital of Brăila County. The Sud-Est (development region), ''Sud-Est'' Regional Development Agency is located in Brăila.
According to the 2021 Romanian ...
,
Giurgiu (both of which soon developed into major trading cities on the
Danube
The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...
), and
Turnu Măgurele. The treaty also allowed Moldavia and Wallachia to freely trade with countries other than the Ottoman Empire, which signalled substantial economic and urban growth, as well as improving the peasant situation. Many of the provisions had been specified by the 1826
Akkerman Convention between Russia and the Ottomans, but it had never been fully implemented in the three-year interval. The duty of overseeing of the Principalities was left to Russian general
Pavel Kiselyov; this period was marked by a series of major changes, including the reestablishment of a
Wallachian Army (1831), a
tax reform
Tax reform is the process of changing the way taxes are collected or managed by the government and is usually undertaken to improve tax administration or to provide economic or social benefits. Tax reform can include reducing the level of taxati ...
(which nonetheless confirmed
tax exemption
Tax exemption is the reduction or removal of a liability to make a compulsory payment that would otherwise be imposed by a ruling power upon persons, property, income, or transactions. Tax-exempt status may provide complete relief from taxes, redu ...
s for the
privileged), as well as major urban works in Bucharest and other cities. In 1834, Wallachia's throne was occupied by
Alexandru II Ghica—a move in contradiction with the Adrianople treaty, as he had not been elected by the new
Legislative Assembly; he was removed by the suzerains in 1842 and replaced with an elected prince,
Gheorghe Bibescu.
1840s–1850s
Opposition to Ghica's arbitrary and highly
conservative
Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...
rule, together with the rise of
liberal and
radical currents, was first felt with the protests voiced by Ion Câmpineanu (quickly repressed); subsequently, it became increasingly
conspiratorial, and centered on those
secret societies
A secret society is an organization about which the activities, events, inner functioning, or membership are concealed. The society may or may not attempt to conceal its existence. The term usually excludes covert groups, such as intelligence a ...
created by young officers such as
Nicolae Bălcescu and
Mitică Filipescu.
''Frăția'', a clandestine movement created in 1843, began planning a revolution to overthrow Bibescu and repeal ''Regulamentul Organic'' in 1848 (inspired by the
European rebellions of the same year). Their pan-Wallachian ''
coup d'état
A coup d'état (; ; ), or simply a coup
, is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is said to take place when a leader, having come to powe ...
'' was initially successful only near
Turnu Măgurele, where crowds cheered the ''
Islaz Proclamation'' (9 June); among others, the document called for
political freedoms, independence,
land reform
Land reform (also known as agrarian reform) involves the changing of laws, regulations, or customs regarding land ownership, land use, and land transfers. The reforms may be initiated by governments, by interested groups, or by revolution.
Lan ...
, and the creation of a national guard. On 11–12 June the movement was successful in deposing Bibescu and establishing a Provisional Government,
[Djuvara, p. 331; Giurescu, pp. 136–137] which made ''Dreptate, Frăție'' ("Justice, Brotherhood") the
national motto
This article lists state and national mottos for the world's nations. The mottos for some states lacking general international recognition, extinct states, non-sovereign nations, regions, and territories are listed, but their names are not bold ...
. Although sympathetic to the anti-Russian goals of the revolution, the Ottomans were pressured by Russia into repressing it: Ottoman troops entered Bucharest on 13 September.
Russian and Turkish troops, present until 1851, brought
Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei to the throne, during which interval most participants in the revolution were sent into exile.

Briefly under renewed Russian occupation during the
Crimean War
The Crimean War was fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861), Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont fro ...
, Wallachia and Moldavia were given a new status with a neutral
Austrian administration (1854–1856) and the
Treaty of Paris: a tutelage shared by Ottomans and a Congress of Great Powers (Britain, France, the
Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the Austrian Empire, Prussia, and, albeit never again fully, Russia), with a ''
kaymakam
Kaymakam, also known by #Names, many other romanizations, was a title used by various officials of the Ottoman Empire, including acting grand viziers, governors of provincial sanjaks, and administrators of district kazas. The title has been reta ...
''-led internal administration. The emerging movement for a union of the
Danubian Principalities (a demand first voiced in 1848, and a cause cemented by the return of revolutionary exiles) was advocated by the French and their Sardinian allies, supported by Russia and Prussia, but was rejected or suspicioned by all other overseers.
After an intense campaign, a formal union was ultimately granted: nevertheless, elections for the ''
Ad hoc Divans'' of 1859 profited from a legal ambiguity (the text of the final agreement specified two thrones, but did not prevent any single person from simultaneously taking part in and winning elections in both Bucharest and
Iași
Iași ( , , ; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the Cities in Romania, third largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical ...
).
Alexander John Cuza, who ran for the unionist ''
Partida Națională'', won the elections in Moldavia on 5 January; Wallachia, which was expected by the unionists to carry the same vote, returned a majority of anti-unionists to its ''divan''.
[Giurescu, p. 142]
Those elected changed their allegiance after a mass protest of Bucharest crowds,
and Cuza was voted prince of Wallachia on 5 February (24 January
Old Style
Old Style (O.S.) and New Style (N.S.) indicate dating systems before and after a calendar change, respectively. Usually, they refer to the change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar as enacted in various European countries betwe ...
), consequently confirmed as ''
Domnitor'' of the
United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia
The United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (), commonly called United Principalities or Wallachia and Moldavia, was the personal union of the Principality of Moldavia and the Principality of Wallachia. The union was formed on when Alexa ...
(''of Romania'' from 1862) and
effectively uniting both principalities. Internationally recognized only for the duration of his reign, the union was irreversible after the ascension of
Carol I
Carol I or Charles I of Romania (born Karl Eitel Friedrich Zephyrinus Ludwig von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; 20 April 1839 – ), was the monarch of Romania from 1866 to his death in 1914, ruling as Prince (''Domnitor'') from 1866 to 1881, and as ...
in 1866 (coinciding with the
Austro-Prussian War
The Austro-Prussian War (German: ''Preußisch-Österreichischer Krieg''), also known by many other names,Seven Weeks' War, German Civil War, Second War of Unification, Brothers War or Fraternal War, known in Germany as ("German War"), ''Deutsc ...
, it came at a time when Austria, the main opponent of the decision, was not in a position to intervene).
Society

Slavery
Slavery
Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
() was part of the
social order
The term social order can be used in two senses: In the first sense, it refers to a particular system of social structures and institutions. Examples are the ancient, the feudal, and the capitalist social order. In the second sense, social orde ...
from before the founding of the Principality of Wallachia, until it was
abolished in stages during the 1840s and 1850s. Most of the slaves were of
Roma (Gypsy) ethnicity.
[Viorel Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, ]Central European University Press
Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object.
Central may also refer to:
Directions and generalised locations
* Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known as ...
, Budapest, 2004, The very first document attesting the presence of Roma people in Wallachia dates back to 1385, and refers to the group as ''ațigani'' (from the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
''
athinganoi'', the origin of the Romanian term ''țigani'', which is synonymous with "Gypsy").
[ Neagu Djuvara, ''Între Orient și Occident. Țările române la începutul epocii moderne'', ]Humanitas
(from the Latin , "human") is a Latin noun meaning human nature, civilization, and kindness. It has uses in the Enlightenment, which are discussed below.
Classical origins of term
The Latin word corresponded to the Greek concepts of (loving ...
, Bucharest, 1995. Although the Romanian terms ''robie'' and ''sclavie'' appear to be synonyms, in terms of legal status, there are significant differences: ''sclavie'' was the term corresponding to the legal institution during the
Roman era
In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of Rome, founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, collapse of the Western Roman Em ...
, where slaves were considered goods instead of human beings and the owners had ''ius vitae necisque'' over them (right to end the life of the slave); while ''robie'' is the feudal institution where the slaves were legally considered human beings and they had reduced legal capacity.
The exact origins of slavery in Wallachia are not known. Slavery was a common
practice in Eastern Europe at the time, and there is some debate over whether the Romani people came to Wallachia as free people or as slaves. In the
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
, they were slaves of the state and it seems the situation was the same in
Bulgaria
Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
and
Serbia
, image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg
, national_motto =
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg
, national_anthem = ()
, image_map =
, map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
until their social organization was destroyed by the
Ottoman conquest, which would suggest that they came as slaves who had a change of 'ownership'. Historian
Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma people's arrival with the 1241
Mongol invasion of Europe
From the 1220s to the 1240s, the Mongol Empire, Mongols conquered the Turkic peoples, Turkic states of Volga Bulgaria, Cumania and Iranian peoples, Iranian state of Alania, and various principalities in Eastern Europe. Following this, they began ...
and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era, the Romanians taking the Roma from the
Mongols
Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family o ...
as slaves and preserving their status. Other historians consider that they were enslaved while captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the Mongols.
[ While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars, the bulk of them came from south of the ]Danube
The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...
at the end of the 14th century, some time after the foundation of Wallachia. The arrival of the Roma made slavery a widespread practice.[Ștefan Ștefănescu, ''Istoria medie a României'', Vol. I, Editura Universității din București, Bucharest, 1991 ]
Traditionally, Roma slaves were divided into three categories. The smallest was owned by the ''hospodars'', and went by the Romanian-language
Romanian (obsolete spelling: Roumanian; , or , ) is the official and main language of Romania and Moldova. Romanian is part of the Eastern Romance languages, Eastern Romance sub-branch of Romance languages, a linguistic group that evolved fr ...
name of ''țigani domnești'' ("Gypsies belonging to the lord"). The two other categories comprised ''țigani mănăstirești'' ("Gypsies belonging to the monasteries"), who were the property of Romanian Orthodox and Greek Orthodox
Greek Orthodox Church (, , ) is a term that can refer to any one of three classes of Christian Churches, each associated in some way with Greek Christianity, Levantine Arabic-speaking Christians or more broadly the rite used in the Eastern Rom ...
monasteries, and ''țigani boierești'' ("Gypsies belonging to the boyars"), who were enslaved by the category of landowners.[Will Guy, ''Between Past and Future: The Roma of Central and Eastern Europe'', University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 2001. ]
The abolition of slavery was carried out following a campaign by young revolutionaries who embraced the liberal ideas of the Enlightenment. The earliest law which freed a category of slaves was in March 1843, which transferred the control of the state slaves owned by the prison authority to the local authorities, leading to their sedentarizing and becoming peasants. During the Wallachian Revolution of 1848, the agenda of the Provisional Government included the emancipation (''dezrobire'') of the Roma as one of the main social demands. By the 1850s the movement gained support from almost the whole of Romanian society, and the law from February 1856 emancipated all slaves to the status of taxpayers (citizens).[
]
Wallachian insignia
Flags
Flag of Wallachia.svg, Heraldic flag under Michael the Brave
Michael the Brave ( or ; 1558 – 9 August 1601), born as Mihai Pătrașcu, was the Prince of Wallachia (as Michael II, 1593–1601), Prince of Moldavia (1600) and ''de facto'' ruler of Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711), Transylvani ...
(1593-1611)
SteagMihneaIII.jpg, Flag under Mihnea III (1658)[ Maria Dogaru, "Din Heraldica României. Album", Ed. Jif, Braşov, 1994.]
Naval_Ensign_of_Wallachia.svg, Naval ensign under Constantin Brâncoveanu (1700)
Banner_of_Scarlat_Ghica_as_Prince_of_Wallachia,_1758.svg, Princely banner of Scarlat Ghica (1758)
Banner_of_Alexander_Soutzos_as_Prince_of_Wallachia.svg, Princely banner of Alexandros Soutzos (1802)
Constantine_Ypsilantis'_banner.svg, Constantine Ypsilantis' banner (1806)
Flag_of_Tudor_Vladimirescu's_Revolution_(1821).png, Flag of the Wallachian uprising of 1821
The uprising of 1821 was a social and political rebellion in Wallachia, which was at the time a Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire, tributary state of the Ottoman Empire. It originated as a movement against the Phanariotes, Phana ...
War_flag_of_the_Principality_of_Wallachia,_1834.png, War ensign of the Principality of Wallachia (1834)
Flag_of_Wallachian_Revolution_of_1848,_horizontal_stripes.svg, Flag of the Wallachian Revolution of 1848
Flagge_von_Walachischen_1858.svg, Naval ensign of the Principality of Wallachia (1858)
Coats of arms and other insignia
Coa_Romania_Country_Wallachia_History_2_(14th_century).svg, Coat of arms under Basarab I
Basarab I (), also known as Basarab the Founder (; – 1351/1352), was a ''voivode'' and later the first independent ruler of Wallachia who lived in the first half of the . Many details of his life are uncertain. According to two popular theo ...
(1360)
Stema_vladislav_i.png, Coat of arms under Vladislav I (1377)
Wallachian_ducats.png, Wallachian coins minted during the Basarab dynasty (1310-1627)
MirceaCelBatranSeal1390.png, Seal used by Mircea the Elder (1390)[ Maria Dogaru, Sigiliile cancelariei domnești a Țării Românești între anii 1715-1821, în Revista Arhivelor, an 47, nr. 1, București, 1970 pp 385–421, 51 ilustrații.]
Stema_dan_ii.png, Coat of arms under Dan II of Wallachia (1420)
Coa_Romania_Family_Vladislav_II.svg, Coat of arms under Vladislav II (1447)
Emblem_of_Wallachia_under_Radu_Paisie_(Dimitrije_Ljubavić's_Molitvenik,_Jan_10,_1545).png, Emblem of Wallachia under Radu Paisie
Radu VII Paisie, officially Radul (Old Church Slavonic in Romania, Church Slavonic: Радул воєвода; ), also known as Radu vodă Măjescul, Radu vodă Călugărul, Petru I, and Petru de la Argeș ( 1500Gheonea, p. 50 – after 1545), wa ...
(1545)
RaduSerban1608blue.png, Coat of arms under Radu Serban (1608)
Coat_of_arms_of_Wallachia_under_Matei_Basarab_(Marcus_Boschinius_version).svg, Coat of arms under Matei Basarab
Matei Basarab (; 1588, Brâncoveni, Olt – 9 April 1654, Bucharest) was the voivode (prince) of Wallachia from 1632 to 1654.
Reign
Much of Matei's reign was spent fighting off incursions from Moldavia, which he successfully accomplished in 1 ...
(1632)
SerbanCantacuzinoCoA1688.png, Coat of arms under Serban Cantacuzino (1688)
Coat of arms of Wallachia, 1700.svg, Coat of arms under Constantin Brâncoveanu (1700)
Dionisie_Eclesiarhul_-_Coat_of_arms_of_Wallachia,_1795.png, Coat of arms under Dionisie Eclesiarhul (1795)
John_George_Caradja's_seal,_1818.png, Seal used by John George Caradja (1812)
Military forces
Geography
With an area of approximately , Wallachia is situated north of the Danube
The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...
(and of present-day Bulgaria
Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
), east of Serbia
, image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg
, national_motto =
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg
, national_anthem = ()
, image_map =
, map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
and south of the Southern Carpathians
The Southern Carpathians (also known as the Transylvanian Alps; ; ) are a group of mountain ranges located in southern Romania. They cover the part of the Carpathian Mountains located between the Prahova River in the east and the Timiș and ...
, and is traditionally divided between Muntenia
Muntenia (, also known in English as Greater Wallachia) is a historical region of Romania, part of Wallachia (also, sometimes considered Wallachia proper, as ''Muntenia'', ''Țara Românească'', and the rarely used ''Valahia'' are synonyms in Ro ...
in the east (as the political center, Muntenia is often understood as being synonymous with Wallachia), and Oltenia
Oltenia (), also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions – with the alternative Latin names , , and between 1718 and 1739 – is a historical province and geographical region of Romania in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Da ...
(a former banat
Banat ( , ; ; ; ) is a geographical and Historical regions of Central Europe, historical region located in the Pannonian Basin that straddles Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. It is divided among three countries: the eastern part lie ...
) in the west. The division line between the two is the Olt River
The Olt ( Romanian and Hungarian; ; or ', , ''Alytos'') is a river in Romania. It is long, and its basin area is . It is the longest river flowing exclusively through Romania. Its average discharge at the mouth is . It originates in the Hă ...
.
Wallachia's traditional border with Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
coincided with the Milcov River for most of its length. To the east, over the Danube north-south bend, Wallachia neighbours Dobruja
Dobruja or Dobrudja (; or ''Dobrudža''; , or ; ; Dobrujan Tatar: ''Tomrîğa''; Ukrainian language, Ukrainian and ) is a Geography, geographical and historical region in Southeastern Europe that has been divided since the 19th century betw ...
(Northern Dobruja
Northern Dobruja ( or simply ; , ''Severna Dobrudzha'') is the part of Dobruja within the borders of Romania. It lies between the lower Danube, Danube River and the Black Sea, bordered in the south by Southern Dobruja, which is a part of Bulgaria.
...
). Over the Carpathians, Wallachia shared a border with Transylvania
Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
; Wallachian princes have for long held possession of areas north of the line ( Amlaș, Ciceu, Făgăraș, and Hațeg), which are generally not considered part of Wallachia proper.
The capital city changed over time, from Câmpulung to Curtea de Argeș
Curtea de Argeș () is a municipiu, city in Romania on the left bank of the river Argeș (river), Argeș, where it flows through a valley of the Southern Carpathians (the Făgăraș Mountains), on the railway from Pitești to the Turnu Roșu Pass ...
, then to Târgoviște
Târgoviște (, alternatively spelled ''Tîrgoviște'') is a Municipiu, city and county seat in Dâmbovița County, Romania. It is situated north-west of Bucharest, on the right bank of the Ialomița (river), Ialomița River.
Târgoviște was ...
and, after the late 17th century, to Bucharest
Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
.
Map gallery
File:Diego-homem-black-sea-ancient-map-1559.jpg, Wallachia, as shown on a wider map of the Black Sea (mid 16th century)
File:Map of the Holy League in 1595.svg, Wallachia, as part of the Holy League's Orthodox states
File:Principati1786.jpg, The Principalities of Moldavia
Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
and Wallachia in 1786, as depicted on an Italian map by G. Pittori (after the geographer Giovanni Antonio Rizzi Zannoni)
File:Wallachia 1789.jpg, F.J.J., von Reilly, Das Furstenthum Walachey, Viena, 1789
File:Salt trade in Wallachia (16th–19th centuries).svg, Salt trade in Wallachia between the 16th and 19th centuries
File:Walachia (1).svg, The region of Wallachia within contemporary Romania
Population
Historical population
Contemporary historians estimate the population of Wallachia in the 15th century at 500,000 people. In 1859, the population of Wallachia was 2,400,921 (1,586,596 in Muntenia
Muntenia (, also known in English as Greater Wallachia) is a historical region of Romania, part of Wallachia (also, sometimes considered Wallachia proper, as ''Muntenia'', ''Țara Românească'', and the rarely used ''Valahia'' are synonyms in Ro ...
and 814,325 in Oltenia
Oltenia (), also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions – with the alternative Latin names , , and between 1718 and 1739 – is a historical province and geographical region of Romania in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Da ...
).
Current population
According to the latest 2011 census data, the region has a total population of 8,256,532 inhabitants, distributed among the ethnic groups as follows (as per 2001 census): Romanians
Romanians (, ; dated Endonym and exonym, exonym ''Vlachs'') are a Romance languages, Romance-speaking ethnic group and nation native to Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. Sharing a Culture of Romania, ...
(97%), Roma (2.5%), others (0.5%).
Cities
The largest cities (as per the 2011 census) in the Wallachia region are:
*Bucharest
Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
(1,883,425)
*Craiova
Craiova (, also , ) is the largest city in southwestern Romania, List of Romanian cities, the seventh largest city in the country and the capital of Dolj County, situated near the east bank of the river Jiu River, Jiu in central Oltenia.
It i ...
(269,506)
*Ploiești
Ploiești ( , , ), formerly spelled Ploești, is a Municipiu, city and county seat in Prahova County, Romania. Part of the historical region of Muntenia, it is located north of Bucharest.
The area of Ploiești is around , and it borders the Ble ...
(209,945)
*Brăila
Brăila (, also , ) is a city in Muntenia, eastern Romania, a port on the Danube and the capital of Brăila County. The Sud-Est (development region), ''Sud-Est'' Regional Development Agency is located in Brăila.
According to the 2021 Romanian ...
(180,302)
*Pitești
Pitești () is a city in Romania, located on the river Argeș (river), Argeș. The capital and largest city of Argeș County, it is an important commercial and industrial center, as well as the home of two universities. Pitești is situated in th ...
(155,383)
*Buzău
Buzău (; formerly spelled ''Buzeu'' or ''Buzĕu'') is a city in the historical region of Muntenia, Romania, and the county seat of Buzău County. It lies near the right bank of the Buzău River, between the south-eastern curvature of the Carp ...
(115,494)
* Drobeta-Turnu Severin (92,617)
* Râmnicu Vâlcea (92,573)
File:Hotel Continental - Calea Victoriei.jpg, Bucharest
Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
File:Palatul Constantin Mihail, (azi Muzeul de Artă) vedere centrală.JPG, Craiova
Craiova (, also , ) is the largest city in southwestern Romania, List of Romanian cities, the seventh largest city in the country and the capital of Dolj County, situated near the east bank of the river Jiu River, Jiu in central Oltenia.
It i ...
File:Casa Luca Elefterescu, azi Muzeul Ceasului "Nicolae Simache" (2).JPG, Ploiești
Ploiești ( , , ), formerly spelled Ploești, is a Municipiu, city and county seat in Prahova County, Romania. Part of the historical region of Muntenia, it is located north of Bucharest.
The area of Ploiești is around , and it borders the Ble ...
File:Hotel Danubiu - Municipiul Braila - vedere de zi.jpg, Brăila
Brăila (, also , ) is a city in Muntenia, eastern Romania, a port on the Danube and the capital of Brăila County. The Sud-Est (development region), ''Sud-Est'' Regional Development Agency is located in Brăila.
According to the 2021 Romanian ...
File:Pitesti art gallery.jpg, Pitești
Pitești () is a city in Romania, located on the river Argeș (river), Argeș. The capital and largest city of Argeș County, it is an important commercial and industrial center, as well as the home of two universities. Pitești is situated in th ...
File:RO BZ Courthouse 2.jpg, Buzău
Buzău (; formerly spelled ''Buzeu'' or ''Buzĕu'') is a city in the historical region of Muntenia, Romania, and the county seat of Buzău County. It lies near the right bank of the Buzău River, between the south-eastern curvature of the Carp ...
File:Castelul de apă, Turnu Severin, jud. MH.JPG, Drobeta-Turnu Severin
File:GerichtRV.JPG, Râmnicu Vâlcea
File:Targoviste city hall.jpg, Târgoviște
Târgoviște (, alternatively spelled ''Tîrgoviște'') is a Municipiu, city and county seat in Dâmbovița County, Romania. It is situated north-west of Bucharest, on the right bank of the Ialomița (river), Ialomița River.
Târgoviște was ...
File:RO GJ Tg Jiu city hall.jpg, Târgu Jiu
Târgu Jiu (, is the capital city, capital of Gorj County in the Oltenia region of Romania. It is situated on the Southern Sub-Carpathian Mountains, Carpathians, on the banks of the river Jiu (river), Jiu. Eight localities are administered by the ...
File:Prefectura Calarasi.jpg, Călărași
Călărași (), the capital of Călărași County in the Muntenia region, is situated in south-east Romania, on the banks of the Danube's Borcea branch, at about from the Bulgarian border and from Bucharest. It is one of six Romanian county se ...
File:Ateneu giurgiu.JPG, Giurgiu
File:RO OT Caracal national theatre.jpg, Caracal
The caracal (''Caracal caracal'') () is a medium-sized Felidae, wild cat native to Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and arid areas of Pakistan and northwestern India. It is characterised by a robust build, long legs, a short face, long ...
File:Romania Campina city hall.jpg, Câmpina
File:RSCityHall.JPG, Râmnicu Sărat
Râmnicu Sărat (also spelled ''Rîmnicu Sărat'', , or ''Rebnick''; ) is a municipiu, city in Buzău County, Romania, in the historical region of Muntenia. It was first attested in a document of 1439, and raised to the rank of ''municipiu'' in ...
File:Primaria calafat.jpg, Calafat
File:Bustul lui Negru Vodă - Câmpulung – LMI AG-III-m-B-13868.jpg, Câmpulung
File:Căălimăneşti.jpg, Călimănești
Călimănești, often known as Călimănești-Căciulata, is a town in Vâlcea County, southern Romania. It is situated in the Historical regions of Romania, historical region of Oltenia and the northern part of the county, on the traditional rou ...
File:Man_Curtea_de_Arges.SV.jpg, Curtea de Argeș
Curtea de Argeș () is a municipiu, city in Romania on the left bank of the river Argeș (river), Argeș, where it flows through a valley of the Southern Carpathians (the Făgăraș Mountains), on the railway from Pitești to the Turnu Roșu Pass ...
File:RO PH Sinaia park 08.jpg, Sinaia
Sinaia () is a town and a mountain resort in Prahova County, Romania. It is situated in the historical region of Muntenia. The town was named after the Sinaia Monastery of 1695, around which it was built. The monastery, in turn, is named after ...
See also
*History of Bucharest
The history of Bucharest covers the time from the early settlements on the locality's territory (and that of the surrounding area in Ilfov County) until its modern existence as a city, capital of Wallachia, and present-day capital of Romania.
...
*List of rulers of Wallachia
This is a list of princes of Wallachia, from the first mention of a medieval polity situated between the Southern Carpathians and the Danube until the union with Moldavia in 1859, which unification of Moldavia and Wallachia, led to the creation of ...
* Balkan–Danubian culture
* Bulgarian lands across the Danube
Notes
References
Bibliography
*Berza, Mihai. "Haraciul Moldovei și al Țării Românești în sec. XV–XIX", in ''Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie'', II, 1957, pp. 7–47.
*Brătianu, Gheorghe I (1980). ''Tradiția istorică despre întemeierea statelor românești'' (The Historical Tradition of the Foundation of the Romanian States). Editura Eminescu.
*
* Djuvara, Neagu. ''Între Orient și Occident. Țările române la începutul epocii moderne'', Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995.
* Giurescu, Constantin. ''Istoria Românilor'', Vol. I, 5th edition, Bucharest, 1946.
* Giurescu, Constantin. ''Istoria Bucureștilor. Din cele mai vechi timpuri pînă în zilele noastre'', ed. Pentru Literatură, Bucharest, 1966.
*Ștefănescu, Ștefan. ''Istoria medie a României'', Vol. I, Bucharest, 1991.
External links
Medieval Coins of Moldavia and Wallachia
{{coord, 44.43, N, 26.10, E, type:country, display=title
Former Russian protectorates
States and territories established in 1330
History of Wallachia
Ottoman period in Romania
States and territories disestablished in 1859
Vassal states of the Ottoman Empire
Fiefdoms of Poland
Former principalities
Exonyms