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Ubinas is an active
stratovolcano A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a typically conical volcano built up by many alternating layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with ...
in the
Moquegua Region Moquegua () is a department and Regional Government of Moquegua, region in southern Peru that extends from the coast to the highlands. Its capital is the city of Moquegua, which is among the main Peruvian cities for its high rates of GDP and nat ...
of southern
Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...
, approximately east of the city of
Arequipa Arequipa (; Aymara language, Aymara and ), also known by its nicknames of ''Ciudad Blanca'' (Spanish for "White City") and ''León del Sur'' (Spanish for "South's Lion"), is a city in Peru and the capital of the eponymous Arequipa (province), ...
. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the
Andes The Andes ( ), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range (; ) are the List of longest mountain chains on Earth, longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range ...
, it rises above sea level. The volcano's summit is cut by a and
caldera A caldera ( ) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the str ...
, which itself contains a smaller
crater A crater is a landform consisting of a hole or depression (geology), depression on a planetary surface, usually caused either by an object hitting the surface, or by geological activity on the planet. A crater has classically been described ...
. Below the summit, Ubinas has the shape of an upwards-steepening cone with a prominent notch on the southern side. The gently sloping lower part of the volcano is also known as Ubinas I and the steeper upper part as Ubinas II; they represent different stages in the volcano's geological history. The most active volcano in Peru, Ubinas has a history of small to moderate
explosive eruption In volcanology, an explosive eruption is a volcanic eruption of the most violent type. A notable example is the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Such eruptions result when sufficient gas has dissolved under pressure within a Viscosity, viscous ...
s as well as a few larger eruptions, such as in 1667, along with persistent
degassing Degassing, also known as degasification, is the removal of dissolved gases from liquids, especially water or aqueous solutions. There are numerous methods for removing gases from liquids. Gases are removed for various reasons. Chemists remove gas ...
and ash emissions. Activity at the volcano began in the
Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( ; referred to colloquially as the ''ice age, Ice Age'') is the geological epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was fin ...
epoch, and led to the growth of the current mountain in two phases. Among the recent eruptions was the 2006–2007 event, which produced
eruption column An eruption column or eruption plume is a cloud of super-heated Volcanic ash, ash and tephra suspended in volcanic gas, gases emitted during an explosive eruption, explosive volcanic eruption. The volcanic materials form a vertical column or Plu ...
s and led to ash fall in the region, resulting in health issues and evacuations. During the most recent activity, from 2013 to 2017, a
lava flow Lava is molten or partially molten rock (magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a Natural satellite, moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a Fissure vent, fractu ...
formed inside the crater, and further ash falls led to renewed evacuations of surrounding towns. Ubinas is monitored by the Peruvian geological service INGEMMET, which has published a volcano hazard map for Ubinas and regular volcanic activity reports.


Name and mythology

The historian and geographer Mariano Felipe Paz Soldán relates the name Ubinas to two terms in two different languages. In the indigenous language Quechua, means "to stuff" or "to fill", and is translated as "to grow" or "to increase". In Aymara, means "weep" or "murmur"; is the
genitive In grammar, the genitive case ( abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive can ...
of . Local inhabitants believed that Ubinas was infested by
demon A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in folklore, mythology, religion, occultism, and literature; these beliefs are reflected in Media (communication), media including f ...
s and the souls of people who had fallen from God. The volcano is also known as Uvillas or Uvinas.


Geography and structure

Ubinas lies in the Ubinas District of the General Sánchez Cerro Province,
Moquegua Region Moquegua () is a department and Regional Government of Moquegua, region in southern Peru that extends from the coast to the highlands. Its capital is the city of Moquegua, which is among the main Peruvian cities for its high rates of GDP and nat ...
of
Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...
, east of
Arequipa Arequipa (; Aymara language, Aymara and ), also known by its nicknames of ''Ciudad Blanca'' (Spanish for "White City") and ''León del Sur'' (Spanish for "South's Lion"), is a city in Peru and the capital of the eponymous Arequipa (province), ...
in the
Peruvian Western Cordillera In Peru the Cordillera Occidental is the western branch of the Andes. It bounds to the west with coastal plains or falls directly into the Pacific along cliffed coasts. To the east of Cordillera Occidental lies the Cordillera Central and the Cor ...
. Like other Peruvian volcanoes, Ubinas belongs to the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone is one of four volcanic belts in the Andes; the others are the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone, and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The Central Volcanic Zone is long, and 69 of its volcanoes have been active in the
Holocene The Holocene () is the current geologic time scale, geological epoch, beginning approximately 11,700 years ago. It follows the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene to ...
epoch. Peruvian volcanoes include
stratovolcano A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a typically conical volcano built up by many alternating layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with ...
es, which are typically active for less than 500,000 years, long-lived clusters of lava domes, and
monogenetic volcanic field A monogenetic volcanic field is a type of volcanic field consisting of a group of small monogenetic volcanoes, each of which erupts only once, as opposed to polygenetic volcanoes, which erupt repeatedly over a period of time. The small monogenetic ...
s. Historical eruptions have been recorded at seven Peruvian volcanoes: El Misti, Huaynaputina, Sabancaya, Ticsani, Tutupaca, Ubinas, and Yucamane. The volcanoes Ampato, Casiri, Chachani, Coropuna, and Sara Sara are dormant. Reaching an elevation of , Ubinas is a conical, truncated stratovolcano with upper slopes that reach angles of up to 45 degrees, and more gently sloping lower flanks. The more gently sloping lower part of the volcano is also known as Ubinas I and the steeper upper part as Ubinas II. The southern flank is cut by a noticeable notch, which is probably not an eruption vent and may have been formed by
mudflow A mudflow, also known as mudslide or mud flow, is a form of mass wasting involving fast-moving flow of debris and dirt that has become liquified by the addition of water. Such flows can move at speeds ranging from 3 meters/minute to 5 meters/se ...
s and rockslides. Due to
weathering Weathering is the deterioration of rocks, soils and minerals (as well as wood and artificial materials) through contact with water, atmospheric gases, sunlight, and biological organisms. It occurs '' in situ'' (on-site, with little or no move ...
, the upper sector of the volcano has a worn appearance. Glacial valleys such as the Ubinas and Para valleys, as well as
cirque A (; from the Latin word ) is an amphitheatre-like valley formed by Glacier#Erosion, glacial erosion. Alternative names for this landform are corrie (from , meaning a pot or cauldron) and ; ). A cirque may also be a similarly shaped landform a ...
s and
moraine A moraine is any accumulation of unconsolidated debris (regolith and Rock (geology), rock), sometimes referred to as glacial till, that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions, and that has been previously carried along by a gla ...
s down to and at the foot of the volcano, indicate that
glacier A glacier (; or ) is a persistent body of dense ice, a form of rock, that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires ...
s developed on Ubinas during the
last glacial maximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred to as the Last Glacial Coldest Period, was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period where ice sheets were at their greatest extent between 26,000 and 20,000 years ago. Ice sheets covered m ...
. Other volcanic cones in the region all show heavy erosion by glaciation. The volcano rises from a circular surface at the margin of a high
plateau In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; : plateaus or plateaux), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. ...
.
Volcanic ash Volcanic ash consists of fragments of rock, mineral crystals, and volcanic glass, produced during volcanic eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm (0.079 inches) in diameter. The term volcanic ash is also often loosely used to r ...
and some
lava flow Lava is molten or partially molten rock (magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a Natural satellite, moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a Fissure vent, fractu ...
s cover the terrain north and east of Ubinas. Four
lava dome In volcanology, a lava dome is a circular, mound-shaped protrusion resulting from the slow extrusion of viscous lava from a volcano. Dome-building eruptions are common, particularly in convergent plate boundary settings. Around 6% of eruptions ...
s crop out around the volcano and may be related to it. The Ubinas and Para valleys border the volcano in its southeastern sector; the difference in elevation between the floor of the Ubinas valley and the plateau is about . The total volume of the mountain is estimated to be about . The summit of the volcano is an elliptical
caldera A caldera ( ) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the str ...
wide and deep, formed by collapses of the summit and
explosive eruption In volcanology, an explosive eruption is a volcanic eruption of the most violent type. A notable example is the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Such eruptions result when sufficient gas has dissolved under pressure within a Viscosity, viscous ...
s. The caldera walls are made of lava flows bearing traces of
hydrothermal Hydrothermal circulation in its most general sense is the circulation of hot water (Ancient Greek ὕδωρ, ''water'',Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R. (1940). ''A Greek-English Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with th ...
alteration; the caldera floor is covered by lava flows and pyroclastic debris from explosive eruptions. It contains one or two ash cones with a triangle-shaped
crater A crater is a landform consisting of a hole or depression (geology), depression on a planetary surface, usually caused either by an object hitting the surface, or by geological activity on the planet. A crater has classically been described ...
wide and deep; its walls are fractured and hydrothermally altered.
Geophysical Geophysics () is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and properties of Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. Geophysicists conduct investigations acros ...
surveys have indicated the presence of an even larger buried caldera in Ubinas. A debris avalanche on the southeastern flank reached a distance of from the volcano, and left a collapse scar that is drained by the Volcanmayo River. This collapse took place early in the history of the volcano and removed a volume of about of rock from the mountain and underlying basement. Further collapses have occurred throughout the history of the volcano and into the Holocene epoch, including one collapse that left a hummocky deposit on the southern flank. The sloping terrain that Ubinas is built upon predisposes the mountain to south-directed landslides; future collapses in that direction are possible, with the heavily fractured southern flank of the caldera particularly at risk.


Hydrology and human geography

In the 1970s, an ephemeral
crater lake Crater Lake ( Klamath: ) is a volcanic crater lake in south-central Oregon in the Western United States. It is the main feature of Crater Lake National Park and is a tourist attraction for its deep blue color and water clarity. T ...
appeared in the crater after wet seasons; another lake formed in 2016 after the crater floor was covered by the ongoing eruptions with impermeable material.
Acid An acid is a molecule or ion capable of either donating a proton (i.e. Hydron, hydrogen cation, H+), known as a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, Brønsted–Lowry acid, or forming a covalent bond with an electron pair, known as a Lewis ...
springs occur in the crater, and their water is capable of corroding
silicon Silicon is a chemical element; it has symbol Si and atomic number 14. It is a hard, brittle crystalline solid with a blue-grey metallic lustre, and is a tetravalent metalloid (sometimes considered a non-metal) and semiconductor. It is a membe ...
after a few hours' exposure. Lake Piscococha is located on the volcano's western foot and during December–April receives meltwater from its slopes, while the Para River and Sacuaya River flow past its eastern and southern slopes, respectively. Other rivers on the slopes of Ubinas are the Quebrada Infiernillo on the southeastern, Volcanmayo River on the southern and Quebrada Postcone on the southwestern flank. The Sacuaya River becomes the Ubinas River and after
confluence In geography, a confluence (also ''conflux'') occurs where two or more watercourses join to form a single channel (geography), channel. A confluence can occur in several configurations: at the point where a tributary joins a larger river (main ...
with the Para ends in the Tambo River which eventually flows into the
Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five Borders of the oceans, oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean, or, depending on the definition, to Antarctica in the south, and is ...
; the Ubinas River valley is densely inhabited. Ubinas lies in the Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve of Peru, which was founded in 1979. The town of Ubinas and the villages of Querapi, Tonohaya, Ubinas and Viscachani lie southeast, south, southeast and northwest of the volcano, respectively, and other villages in the area include Anascapa, Escacha, Huarina, Huatahua, Sacuaya, San Miguel and Tonohaya. In total about 5,000 people live within from the volcano, with Querapi being only away from Ubinas and thus the closest town to it. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the most important economic activities in these towns, agriculture prevailing at lower elevations.
Water reservoir A reservoir (; ) is an enlarged lake behind a dam, usually built to store fresh water, often doubling for hydroelectric power generation. Reservoirs are created by controlling a watercourse that drains an existing body of water, interrupt ...
s and
mining Mining is the Resource extraction, extraction of valuable geological materials and minerals from the surface of the Earth. Mining is required to obtain most materials that cannot be grown through agriculture, agricultural processes, or feasib ...
projects also exist in the wider region. Paved
road A road is a thoroughfare used primarily for movement of traffic. Roads differ from streets, whose primary use is local access. They also differ from stroads, which combine the features of streets and roads. Most modern roads are paved. Th ...
s run along the northern and southern-southwestern foot of Ubinas, connecting towns close to the volcano to Arequipa and allowing access to the volcano over its western flank.


Geology

Off the western coast of South America, the
Nazca Plate The Nazca plate or Nasca plate, named after the Nazca region of southern Peru, is an oceanic list of tectonic plates, tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin off the west coast of South America. The ongoing subduction, along the Peru– ...
subducts beneath the
South American Plate The South American plate is a major tectonic plate which includes the continent of South America as well as a sizable region of the Atlantic Ocean seabed extending eastward to the African plate, with which it forms the southern part of the Mid ...
at a rate of in the Peru-Chile Trench. This subduction process is responsible for the formation of the
Andes The Andes ( ), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range (; ) are the List of longest mountain chains on Earth, longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range ...
and the
Altiplano The Altiplano (Spanish language, Spanish for "high plain"), Collao (Quechuan languages, Quechua and Aymara language, Aymara: Qullaw, meaning "place of the Qulla people, Qulla") or Andean Plateau, in west-central South America, is the most extens ...
- Puna plateau within the last 25 million years, as well as for volcanism and
earthquake An earthquakealso called a quake, tremor, or tembloris the shaking of the Earth's surface resulting from a sudden release of energy in the lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in intensity, from those so weak they ...
s. The
magma Magma () is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma (sometimes colloquially but incorrectly referred to as ''lava'') is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also ...
erupted by the volcanoes is formed by the
partial melting Partial melting is the phenomenon that occurs when a rock is subjected to temperatures high enough to cause certain minerals to melt, but not all of them. Partial melting is an important part of the formation of all igneous rocks and some metamorp ...
of the mantle after fluids originating in the downgoing
slab Slab or SLAB may refer to: Physical materials * Concrete slab, a flat concrete plate used in construction * Stone slab, a flat stone used in construction * Slab (casting), a length of metal * Slab (geology), that portion of a tectonic plate that ...
have altered the mantle; the magmas often undergo fractional crystallization and absorb crustal material. Southern Peru has been affected by volcanic activity since the
Ordovician The Ordovician ( ) is a geologic period and System (geology), system, the second of six periods of the Paleozoic Era (geology), Era, and the second of twelve periods of the Phanerozoic Eon (geology), Eon. The Ordovician spans 41.6 million years f ...
and the
Permian The Permian ( ) is a geologic period and System (stratigraphy), stratigraphic system which spans 47 million years, from the end of the Carboniferous Period million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Triassic Period 251.902 Mya. It is the s ...
-
Jurassic The Jurassic ( ) is a Geological period, geologic period and System (stratigraphy), stratigraphic system that spanned from the end of the Triassic Period million years ago (Mya) to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period, approximately 143.1 Mya. ...
period,
subduction Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere and some continental lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at the convergent boundaries between tectonic plates. Where one tectonic plate converges with a second p ...
-related volcanism becoming important from the
Cretaceous The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 143.1 to 66 mya (unit), million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era (geology), Era, as well as the longest. At around 77.1 million years, it is the ...
onwards. Beginning 91 million years ago, several
volcanic arc A volcanic arc (also known as a magmatic arc) is a belt of volcanoes formed above a subducting oceanic tectonic plate, with the belt arranged in an arc shape as seen from above. Volcanic arcs typically parallel an oceanic trench, with the arc ...
s have been active in southern Peru: from the Toquepala arc 91 – 45 million years ago over the Andahuaylas-Anta 45–30 million years ago, the Huaylillas 24–10 million years ago, the two Barroso arcs 10–1 million years ago, to the recent arc in the last million years. The switching between the volcanic arcs was accompanied by northeastward or southwestward shifts of the zone of main volcanic activity. Furthermore, there was little relief in the region before about 45 million years ago when major uplift commenced.


Local setting

Ubinas, Ticsani and Huaynaputina form a group of volcanoes that extend in north-south direction north of the chain of volcanoes that make up the rest of the Central Volcanic Zone. These volcanoes have erupted rocks with similar geochemical traits and they are located around a
graben In geology, a graben () is a depression (geology), depressed block of the Crust (geology), crust of a planet or moon, bordered by parallel normal faults. Etymology ''Graben'' is a loan word from German language, German, meaning 'ditch' or 't ...
occupied by the Rio Tambo; the marginal faults of this graben are the sites of the volcanic vents and probably acted as magma conduits. The magmas erupted by all three volcanoes appear to originate in a common
magma chamber A magma chamber is a large pool of liquid rock beneath the surface of the Earth. The molten rock, or magma, in such a chamber is less dense than the surrounding country rock, which produces buoyant forces on the magma that tend to drive it u ...
at depth, with seismic activity localized along the margins of the chamber. Aside from this deep reservoir, Ubinas also has a shallower magma chamber at depth which appears to have a small size. An underground magmatic connection between Ubinas and Huaynaputina was postulated already by Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa after the 1600 eruption of the latter volcano, which was the largest historical eruption in the Andes and had an enormous impact, including causing a cold summer in the northern hemisphere. The
basement A basement is any Storey, floor of a building that is not above the grade plane. Especially in residential buildings, it often is used as a utility space for a building, where such items as the Furnace (house heating), furnace, water heating, ...
of Ubinas consists of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks include the
Jurassic The Jurassic ( ) is a Geological period, geologic period and System (stratigraphy), stratigraphic system that spanned from the end of the Triassic Period million years ago (Mya) to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period, approximately 143.1 Mya. ...
Chocholate Formation, the Socosani Formation and the Yura Group. The oldest volcanic rocks of the Matalaque Volcanics date to the
Late Cretaceous The Late Cretaceous (100.5–66 Ma) is the more recent of two epochs into which the Cretaceous Period is divided in the geologic time scale. Rock strata from this epoch form the Upper Cretaceous Series. The Cretaceous is named after ''cre ...
and crop out east and southeast of Ubinas, far away from the volcano. Most of the volcanics in proximity to Ubinas are the younger,
Eocene The Eocene ( ) is a geological epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (Ma). It is the second epoch of the Paleogene Period (geology), Period in the modern Cenozoic Era (geology), Era. The name ''Eocene'' comes ...
-to-
Oligocene The Oligocene ( ) is a geologic epoch (geology), epoch of the Paleogene Geologic time scale, Period that extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million years before the present ( to ). As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that defin ...
Tacaza Group and the more restricted
Miocene The Miocene ( ) is the first epoch (geology), geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and mea ...
-
Pliocene The Pliocene ( ; also Pleiocene) is the epoch (geology), epoch in the geologic time scale that extends from 5.33 to 2.58Barroso Group, which directly underlies the Ubinas mountain. Even older basement rocks include
Paleoproterozoic The Paleoproterozoic Era (also spelled Palaeoproterozoic) is the first of the three sub-divisions ( eras) of the Proterozoic eon, and also the longest era of the Earth's geological history, spanning from (2.5–1.6  Ga). It is further sub ...
pluton In geology, an igneous intrusion (or intrusive body or simply intrusion) is a body of intrusive igneous rock that forms by crystallization of magma slowly cooling below the surface of the Earth. Intrusions have a wide variety of forms and com ...
s and the sedimentary Yura Group of
Jurassic The Jurassic ( ) is a Geological period, geologic period and System (stratigraphy), stratigraphic system that spanned from the end of the Triassic Period million years ago (Mya) to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period, approximately 143.1 Mya. ...
to
Cretaceous The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 143.1 to 66 mya (unit), million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era (geology), Era, as well as the longest. At around 77.1 million years, it is the ...
age. A depression, whose margin is cut by
landslide Landslides, also known as landslips, rockslips or rockslides, are several forms of mass wasting that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, mudflows, shallow or deep-seated slope failures and debris flows. Landslides ...
scars, cuts into the basement southeast of Ubinas and contains the Ubinas valley. Faults cut across the volcano and create unstable areas, especially in its southern sector, and NNW-SSE trending geological lineaments have influenced the stability and the hydrothermal system of Ubinas.


Composition

Andesite Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomina ...
and
dacite Dacite () is a volcanic rock formed by rapid solidification of lava that is high in silica and low in alkali metal oxides. It has a fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite. ...
are the dominant components of the volcano, though its rocks have compositions ranging from basaltic andesite to
rhyolite Rhyolite ( ) is the most silica-rich of volcanic rocks. It is generally glassy or fine-grained (aphanitic) in texture (geology), texture, but may be porphyritic, containing larger mineral crystals (phenocrysts) in an otherwise fine-grained matri ...
. The volcanic rocks form a
potassium Potassium is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol K (from Neo-Latin ) and atomic number19. It is a silvery white metal that is soft enough to easily cut with a knife. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmospheric oxygen to ...
-rich
calc-alkaline The calc-alkaline magma series is one of two main subdivisions of the subalkaline magma series, the other subalkaline magma series being the tholeiitic series. A magma series is a series of compositions that describes the evolution of a mafic ...
suite.
Phenocryst image:montblanc granite phenocrysts.JPG, 300px, Granites often have large feldspar, feldspathic phenocrysts. This granite, from the Switzerland, Swiss side of the Mont Blanc massif, has large white phenocrysts of plagioclase (that have trapezoid sh ...
minerals vary between volcanic rocks of different composition and include
amphibole Amphibole ( ) is a group of inosilicate minerals, forming prism or needlelike crystals, composed of double chain tetrahedra, linked at the vertices and generally containing ions of iron and/or magnesium in their structures. Its IMA symbol is ...
,
apatite Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually hydroxyapatite, fluorapatite and chlorapatite, with high concentrations of Hydroxide, OH−, Fluoride, F− and Chloride, Cl− ion, respectively, in the crystal. The formula of the admixture of ...
,
biotite Biotite is a common group of phyllosilicate minerals within the mica group, with the approximate chemical formula . It is primarily a solid-solution series between the iron- endmember annite, and the magnesium-endmember phlogopite; more al ...
,
clinopyroxene The pyroxenes (commonly abbreviated Px) are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes have the general formula , where X represents ions of calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), iron (Fe ...
,
iron Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...
-
titanium Titanium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ti and atomic number 22. Found in nature only as an oxide, it can be reduced to produce a lustrous transition metal with a silver color, low density, and high strength, resistant to corrosion in ...
oxide An oxide () is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. "Oxide" itself is the dianion (anion bearing a net charge of −2) of oxygen, an O2− ion with oxygen in the oxidation st ...
s,
olivine The mineral olivine () is a magnesium iron Silicate minerals, silicate with the chemical formula . It is a type of Nesosilicates, nesosilicate or orthosilicate. The primary component of the Earth's upper mantle (Earth), upper mantle, it is a com ...
,
orthopyroxene The pyroxenes (commonly abbreviated Px) are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes have the general formula , where X represents ions of calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), iron (Fe( ...
,
plagioclase Plagioclase ( ) is a series of Silicate minerals#Tectosilicates, tectosilicate (framework silicate) minerals within the feldspar group. Rather than referring to a particular mineral with a specific chemical composition, plagioclase is a continu ...
and
zircon Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of th ...
. Assimilation of crustal material and fractional crystallization are involved in the genesis of this magma suite. Lava composition has changed over time, dacites being represented mainly during the Ubinas II stage while stage I yielded mostly andesites.
Silica Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula , commonly found in nature as quartz. In many parts of the world, silica is the major constituent of sand. Silica is one of the most complex and abundant f ...
content has decreased over time, with two phases of more silicic eruptions in the mid- and late Holocene. Holocene explosive eruptions were fed by silicic magma chambers that are now inactive as basaltic andesite is the major product of historical eruptions. There is a trend for more recent volcanic events to produce more diverse rocks than the early eruptions, probably owing to a change in the magma supply regime; after 25,000–14,700 years ago magma supply increased and became more irregular. Otherwise, the magma supply rate at Ubinas amounts to about , with an average rate of .


Eruptive history

Ubinas started to develop in the middle and late Pleistocene epoch. The oldest pre-Ubinas volcanics crop out north and south of the volcano and include the volcanoes Parhuane Grande and Parhuane Chico directly to the north. Volcanic activity started after a change in regional tectonics, which may have triggered the formation of magma chambers. The volcano developed in two phases, Ubinas I and Ubinas II: Ubinas I is represented by lava flows at the foot of the volcano and debris and
ignimbrite Ignimbrite is a type of volcanic rock, consisting of hardened tuff. Ignimbrites form from the deposits of pyroclastic flows, which are a hot suspension of particles and gases flowing rapidly from a volcano, driven by being denser than the surrou ...
deposits in the south and southeast of Ubinas, and it forms a
shield A shield is a piece of personal armour held in the hand, which may or may not be strapped to the wrist or forearm. Shields are used to intercept specific attacks, whether from close-ranged weaponry like spears or long ranged projectiles suc ...
. It was later cut on its southern side by a debris avalanche that probably occurred over 376,000 years ago. The last activity of Ubinas I generated more than four
units Unit may refer to: General measurement * Unit of measurement, a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by convention or by law **International System of Units (SI), modern form of the metric system **English units, histo ...
of
pyroclastic flow A pyroclastic flow (also known as a pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra) that flows along the ground away from a volcano at average speeds of b ...
s, with a total volume of about , and possibly an old caldera 269,000 ± 16,000 years ago. Ubinas II is steeper and rises above the Ubinas I shield. It consists mainly of lava flows but also several lava domes with accompanying block-and-ash flows, all of which formed between 261,000 ± 10,000 and 142,000 ± 30,000 years ago. A lack of more recent volcanic outcrops suggests a period of dormancy lasting until 25,000–14,700 years ago during which glaciation took place on the volcano. Reactivated volcanic activity started between 25,000 and 14,700 years ago and led to the emplacement of ash flows,
pumice Pumice (), called pumicite in its powdered or dust form, is a volcanic rock that consists of extremely vesicular rough-textured volcanic glass, which may or may not contain crystals. It is typically light-colored. Scoria is another vesicula ...
layers and
tephra Tephra is fragmental material produced by a Volcano, volcanic eruption regardless of composition, fragment size, or emplacement mechanism. Volcanologists also refer to airborne fragments as pyroclasts. Once clasts have fallen to the ground, ...
from phreatomagmatic and explosive eruptions, with deposits having thicknesses ranging from in many places. The total volume of each eruption deposit ranges from and they crop out as far as from Ubinas. It is likely that the summit caldera formed during this time period, before 9,700 years ago. Over the last 7,500 years, volcanic activity has been characterized mainly by various kinds of explosive eruptions. These eruptions have expelled less than of material each time and left widespread deposits of ash, volcanic blocks and
lapilli Lapilli (: lapillus) is a size classification of tephra, which is material that falls out of the air during a volcanic eruption or during some meteorite impacts. ''Lapilli'' is Latin for "little stones". By definition lapilli range from in dia ...
. A
Plinian eruption Plinian eruptions or Vesuvian eruptions are volcanic eruptions characterized by their similarity to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which destroyed the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The eruption was described in a le ...
occurred 980 ± 60 years BP and expelled of pumice and tephra, which has formed a deposit with five separate layers of pumice, ash and lapilli. More eruptions identified by
tephrochronology 250px, Tephra horizons in south-central Iceland. The thick and light coloured layer at the height of the volcanologist's hands is rhyolitic tephra from Hekla. Tephrochronology is a Geochronology, geochronological technique for dating archaeolo ...
took place 1,890 ± 70, 7,480 ± 40, 11,280 ± 70, 11,480 ± 220 and 14,690 ± 200 years ago, yielding
scoria Scoria or cinder is a pyroclastic, highly vesicular, dark-colored volcanic rock formed by ejection from a volcano as a molten blob and cooled in the air to form discrete grains called clasts.Neuendorf, K.K.E., J.P. Mehl, Jr., and J.A. Jackso ...
and pyroclastic flows. The various explosive eruptions of Ubinas have deposited material as far as away from the volcano. Landslides also took place in this time, including the collapse more than 3,670 ± 60 years ago.


Historical

Ubinas is the most active volcano in Peru and one of the most active in the Central Volcanic Zone; at least 27 explosive eruptions have occurred since the 16th century at an average rate of one eruption every twenty to thirty-three years. Events are recorded from 1550, 1599, 1600, 1662, 1667, 1677, 1778, 1784, 1826, 1830, 1862, 1865, 1867, 1869, 1906, 1907, 1912, 1923, 1936, 1937, 1951, 1956, 1969, 1996, 2006–2009, 2013–2016, 2016–2017 and 2019. Most of these eruptions consisted of emissions of ash and gas, sometimes accompanied by explosions, while more intense events such as in 1667 also produced scoria falls and pyroclastic flows. The 1667 eruption was the largest in historical time, producing about of scoria and reaching a
volcanic explosivity index The volcanic explosivity index (VEI) is a scale used to measure the size of explosive volcanic eruptions. It was devised by Christopher G. Newhall of the United States Geological Survey and Stephen Self in 1982. Volume of products, eruption c ...
of 3. These eruptions have damaged communities around the volcano, and occasionally caused
epidemic An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί ''epi'' "upon or above" and δῆμος ''demos'' "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of hosts in a given population within a short period of time. For example, in meningococcal infection ...
s and human and cattle fatalities resulting from the ingestion of ash. Aside from regular eruptions, there are fumarolic-seismic events such as in 1995–1996 when
sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide (IUPAC-recommended spelling) or sulphur dioxide (traditional Commonwealth English) is the chemical compound with the formula . It is a colorless gas with a pungent smell that is responsible for the odor of burnt matches. It is r ...
and
water vapour Water vapor, water vapour, or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice. Water vapor ...
, emitted at temperatures of up to , formed clouds that rose over above the crater. Ubinas persistently emanates smoke, and
lahar A lahar (, from ) is a violent type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of Pyroclastic rock, pyroclastic material, rocky debris and water. The material flows down from a volcano, typically along a valley, river valley. Lahars are o ...
s which have damaged
fields Fields may refer to: Music *Fields (band), an indie rock band formed in 2006 * Fields (progressive rock band), a progressive rock band formed in 1971 * ''Fields'' (album), an LP by Swedish-based indie rock band Junip (2010) * "Fields", a song by ...
,
irrigation canal Canals or artificial waterways are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage management (e.g. flood control and irrigation) or for conveyancing water transport vehicles (e.g. water taxi). They carry free, calm surface f ...
s and paths have been recorded, such as the 2016 lahars caused by early 2016 precipitation events which mobilized ash that had fallen over the previous years. These lahars destroyed local water supplies and left the Matalaque and Ubinas districts temporarily isolated.


2006–2007 eruption

The first episode of the 2006–2007 eruption sequence involved the ejection of large
volcanic bomb A volcanic bomb or lava bomb is a mass of partially molten rock (tephra) larger than 64 mm (2.5 inches) in diameter, formed when a volcano ejects viscous fragments of lava during an eruption. Because volcanic bombs cool after they l ...
s at high speed and the emission of small quantities of ash. Gas and ash columns were emitted between April and October 2006 and reached heights of about . Volcanically induced melting of snow that had fallen on the summit during the 2006–2007 summer induced a mudflow in January 2007 that descended into the Ubinas River valley. Volcanic activity—
degassing Degassing, also known as degasification, is the removal of dissolved gases from liquids, especially water or aqueous solutions. There are numerous methods for removing gases from liquids. Gases are removed for various reasons. Chemists remove gas ...
and of
Vulcanian eruption A Vulcanian eruption is a type of volcanic eruption characterized by a dense cloud of ash-laden gas exploding from the crater and rising high above the peak. They usually commence with phreatomagmatic eruptions which can be extremely noisy due t ...
s—decreased until late 2009. This eruption was probably triggered by the entry of fresh magma in the magma plumbing system and the subsequent interaction of ascending magmas with the hydrothermal system of Ubinas. Beginning in July 2009, eruptive activity decreased considerably, being replaced with steady fumarolic emissions. Despite its record of activity, Ubinas was essentially unmonitored before the 2006 event: the inhabitants of the area were largely unaware of volcanic hazards, and there were no emergency plans for future eruptions available. A "Scientific Committee" was formed on March 30, 2006 to remedy these issues. A region of about was hit by the effects of the eruption. The ash fall from the eruption caused health problems and disrupted pastures and agriculture in the region around the volcano, resulting in about of damage and the flight of local residents to Arequipa and
Moquegua Moquegua (, founded by the Spanish colonists as Villa de Santa Catalina de Guadalcázar del Valle de Moquegua) is a city in southern Peru, located in the Department of Moquegua, of which it is the capital. It is also capital of Mariscal Nieto Prov ...
. The village of Querapi on the southern flank was temporarily evacuated to a location with shelters farther south, and two shelters were designated in low-risk areas around the volcano, one at Anascapa and the other at Chacchagen, away from Matalaque. Furthermore, Lake Salinas, an important source of water in the region, was threatened by the eruption.


2013–2014 eruption and later episodes

A new eruption period started on 2 September 2013 with a phreatic explosion, which was followed by more events in the next few days. Strong but variable
seismic Seismology (; from Ancient Greek σεισμός (''seismós'') meaning "earthquake" and -λογία (''-logía'') meaning "study of") is the scientific study of earthquakes (or generally, quakes) and the generation and propagation of elastic ...
activity, the observation of thermal anomalies in satellite images and the exhalation of gases characterized this eruption period. Lava effusion began in the summit crater in 2014 and increased after the
2014 Iquique earthquake The 2014 Iquique earthquake struck off the coast of Chile on 1 April, with a moment magnitude of 8.1–8.2, at 20:46 Time in Chile, local time (23:46 Coordinated Universal Time, UTC). The epicenter of the earthquake was approximately northwest ...
, culminating in an explosive eruption on April 19, 2014. Volcanic activity decreased afterwards until September 2014. The eruptions were accompanied by earthquakes, rumbling noises from the volcano, ash fall and the forceful ejection of large blocks. In light of the volcanic activity, Peru declared a
state of emergency A state of emergency is a situation in which a government is empowered to put through policies that it would normally not be permitted to do, for the safety and protection of its citizens. A government can declare such a state before, during, o ...
in August 2013 and evacuated the village of Querapi at Ubinas, whose population returned in 2016; The evacuation of the town of Ubinas was also considered. The 2006 and 2013–2017 activity induced the Peruvian government to invest additional resources in volcano monitoring. After these events, in 2015–2017 the volcano often persistently released ash and gas, accompanied by earthquakes as well as occasional explosions and
eruption column An eruption column or eruption plume is a cloud of super-heated Volcanic ash, ash and tephra suspended in volcanic gas, gases emitted during an explosive eruption, explosive volcanic eruption. The volcanic materials form a vertical column or Plu ...
s. In April 2015, for example, activity at Ubinas led to a declaration of emergency for the districts surrounding the volcano, then in September of the same year an eruption generated a eruption column that produced ash fall in the region, leading to evacuations. On 18 June 2019, earthquake activity increased and a new eruption commenced on 24 June, with eruption columns rising above the summit crater. The most energetic eruption episode took place on 19 July 2019 with three major explosions. The explosions and ash emissions triggered evacuations and impacted 29,703 people in various districts of the
Puno Puno ( Aymara and ) is a city in southeastern Peru, located on the shore of Lake Titicaca. It is the capital city of the Puno Region and the Puno Province with a population of approximately 140,839 (2015 estimate). The city was established in ...
and
Tacna Region Tacna (; Aymara language, Aymara and Quechuan languages, Quechua: ''Taqna'') is the southernmost Regions of Peru, department and Regional Government of Tacna, region in Peru. The Chilean Army occupied the present-day Tacna Department during the W ...
s, as well as
Bolivia Bolivia, officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in central South America. The country features diverse geography, including vast Amazonian plains, tropical lowlands, mountains, the Gran Chaco Province, w ...
and
Argentina Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a country in the southern half of South America. It covers an area of , making it the List of South American countries by area, second-largest country in South America after Brazil, the fourt ...
. Since then the volcano has been active with ash and steam emissions, earthquakes and lahars. In May 2023, an increase of seismic activity preceded a new eruption that commenced on 22 June 2023. This eruption petered out at the end of the year, while
lahar A lahar (, from ) is a violent type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of Pyroclastic rock, pyroclastic material, rocky debris and water. The material flows down from a volcano, typically along a valley, river valley. Lahars are o ...
s descended its slopes.


Hazards and management

Hazards stemming from volcanic activity at Ubinas are mainly the fallout from explosive eruptions, lahars of different origins, large landslides that can generate debris flows and pyroclastic flows. Small explosive eruptions are the most likely occurrences at Ubinas, while large Plinian eruptions are considerably less likely. The area of the cone itself is the area most likely to be affected by volcanic phenomena, while pyroclastic flows and lahars are a danger for the valleys that drain Ubinas in southeastern direction and landslides are hazardous for an area of the southern flank. The town closest to the volcano is only away from Ubinas. Large Plinian eruptions could have effects on the city of Arequipa. The Volcano Observatory of INGEMMET monitors the seismic activity, any deformation and emissions of the mountain, and hot spring and gas composition at Ubinas. It regularly publishes a report on the activity of Ubinas. When there are indications of increased volcanic activity, it can recommend that the local government raise the volcano hazard level. Hazard maps were created during the 2006 eruptive event to show the relative risk in various locations around the volcano, which is graded in a three-zone scheme with one high-risk, one intermediate-risk and one low-risk zone. A contingency map was created to show and explain the procedures to follow in case of various eruption scenarios. Both maps were widely disseminated after publication to aid in the response to future eruptions.


Fumarolic and geothermal system

Fumarole A fumarole (or fumerole) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or another rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcani ...
s are active at the bottom of the inner crater, with about five separate fumarole areas identified within the crater before the 2006 eruption. In 1997, a gas cloud from the fumaroles filled the entire caldera during the nights. Fumarolic activity and degassing is limited to the crater; there is no evidence of such gas exhalations elsewhere on the volcano. Ubinas is a major source of volcanic
carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...
and sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere of Earth, producing at a rate of about . The sulfur dioxide output changes with volcanic activity. Reportedly, the sound of the fumaroles can be heard from the village of Ubinas. The fumaroles along with the
spontaneous potential Spontaneous potentials are often measured down boreholes for formation evaluation in the oil and gas industry, and they can also be measured along the Earth's surface for mineral exploration or groundwater investigation. The phenomenon and its app ...
of Ubinas indicate that the volcano hosts an active hydrothermal system below the caldera. About 41 springs occur in the area; of these two are
hot spring A hot spring, hydrothermal spring, or geothermal spring is a Spring (hydrology), spring produced by the emergence of Geothermal activity, geothermally heated groundwater onto the surface of the Earth. The groundwater is heated either by shallow ...
s, are found on the southeastern slopes of Ubinas and are known as Ubinas Termal and Ubinas Fria. Both lie at elevation, the waters flowing out of the springs have temperatures of and , respectively. The composition of the waters in these springs indicate that they originate from the mixing of deep saline water, fresh water and volcanic fluids. Additional springs associated with the volcano are Baños de Cura, Exchaje, Huarina and Lucca; these hot springs and others in the region are considered to be part of a geothermal province known as "Ubinas" which also includes El Misti, and which deliver large amounts of dissolved minerals including
arsenic Arsenic is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol As and atomic number 33. It is a metalloid and one of the pnictogens, and therefore shares many properties with its group 15 neighbors phosphorus and antimony. Arsenic is not ...
to the local rivers.


Climate and vegetation

The climate of the area changes with elevation. The summit of Ubinas has a cold climate with temperatures frequently falling below ; at lower elevations temperatures can exceed during daytime, but night frosts are still possible. The region is
arid Aridity is the condition of geographical regions which make up approximately 43% of total global available land area, characterized by low annual precipitation, increased temperatures, and limited water availability.Perez-Aguilar, L. Y., Plata ...
overall, but during the summer wet-season rainfall can cause landslides at lower elevation, and the upper parts of the volcano including the caldera can receive a
snow Snow consists of individual ice crystals that grow while suspended in the atmosphere—usually within clouds—and then fall, accumulating on the ground where they undergo further changes. It consists of frozen crystalline water througho ...
cover. Weather data are available for the town of Ubinas at elevation: the average temperature is and the average annual precipitation is about . The present-day
snow line The climatic snow line is the boundary between a snow-covered and snow-free surface. The actual snow line may adjust seasonally, and be either significantly higher in elevation, or lower. The permanent snow line is the level above which snow wil ...
exceeds elevation, but during the
Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( ; referred to colloquially as the ''ice age, Ice Age'') is the geological epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was fin ...
epoch it descended to about . Vegetation at elevation consists of grassland, bushes and low trees such as '' Buddleja coriacea'', '' Escallonia myrtilloides'', '' Polylepis besseri'' and '' Ribes brachybotrys'' forming a
shrub A shrub or bush is a small to medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees by their multiple ...
vegetation in valleys. Farther up, between lies a vegetation form called '' pajonal'', which consists of creeping plants,
grasses Poaceae ( ), also called Gramineae ( ), is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos, the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in ...
and shrubs made up of high Andean vegetation. Small lakes and areas of waterlogged soil form
wetland A wetland is a distinct semi-aquatic ecosystem whose groundcovers are flooded or saturated in water, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally. Flooding results in oxygen-poor ( anoxic) processes taking place, especially ...
s called '' bofedales'', in which
aquatic plant Aquatic plants, also referred to as hydrophytes, are vascular plants and Non-vascular plant, non-vascular plants that have adapted to live in aquatic ecosystem, aquatic environments (marine ecosystem, saltwater or freshwater ecosystem, freshwater ...
s and rosette-forming plants grow; both ''bofedales'' and ''pajonal'' also feature
cushion plant A cushion plant is a compact, low-growing, mat-forming plant that is found in alpine, subalpine, arctic, or subarctic environments around the world. The term "cushion" is usually applied to woody plants that grow as spreading mats, are limited i ...
s. The upper sector of Ubinas is vegetation-free. Animal species have been described mainly in the context of the National Reserve; they include various
bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class (biology), class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the Oviparity, laying of Eggshell, hard-shelled eggs, a high Metabolism, metabolic rate, a fou ...
s and
camelid Camelids are members of the biological family (biology), family Camelidae, the only currently living family in the suborder Tylopoda. The seven extant taxon, extant members of this group are: dromedary, dromedary camels, Bactrian camels, wild Bac ...
s such as
alpaca The alpaca (''Lama pacos'') is a species of South American camelid mammal. Traditionally, alpacas were kept in herds that grazed on the level heights of the Andes of Southern Peru, Western Bolivia, Ecuador, and Northern Chile. More recentl ...
s,
guanaco The guanaco ( ; ''Lama guanicoe'') is a camelid native to South America, closely related to the llama. Guanacos are one of two wild South American camelids; the other species is the vicuña, which lives at higher elevations. Etymology The gua ...
s,
llama The llama (; or ) (''Lama glama'') is a domesticated South American camelid, widely used as a List of meat animals, meat and pack animal by Inca empire, Andean cultures since the pre-Columbian era. Llamas are social animals and live with ...
s and
vicuña The vicuña (''Lama vicugna'') or vicuna (both , very rarely spelled ''vicugna'', Vicugna, its former genus name) is one of the two wild South American camelids, which live in the high alpine tundra, alpine areas of the Andes; the other cameli ...
s.


Human use

Sulfur Sulfur ( American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphur ( Commonwealth spelling) is a chemical element; it has symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms ...
deposits in the crater of Ubinas were considered among the most important sulfur deposits in Peru and were mined in the 19th century. Ubinas has been considered a potential place for
geothermal energy Geothermal energy is thermal energy extracted from the crust (geology), crust. It combines energy from the formation of the planet and from radioactive decay. Geothermal energy has been exploited as a source of heat and/or electric power for m ...
production. Its eruptions between 2006–2017 have stimulated research on this volcano.


See also

* Pirhuane * Pucasaya


Notes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

*


External links


Instituto Geofísico del Perú

"Volcán Ubinas, Peru" on Peakbagger
{{Andean volcanoes Stratovolcanoes of Peru Mountains of the Department of Moquegua Active volcanoes Pleistocene stratovolcanoes Pleistocene Peru Andean Volcanic Belt Five-thousanders of the Andes