USS ''President'' was a wooden- hulled, three- masted heavy frigate of the

United States Navy The United States Navy (USN) is the naval warfare, maritime military branch, service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is the world's most powerful navy with the largest Displacement (ship), displacement, at 4.5 millio ...

, nominally rated at 44 guns; she was launched in April 1800 from a shipyard in New York City. ''President'' was one of the original six frigates whose construction the Naval Act of 1794 had authorized, and she was the last to be completed. The name "President" was among ten names submitted to President

George Washington George Washington (, 1799) was a Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. As commander of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot (American Revoluti ...

by Secretary of War

Timothy Pickering Timothy Pickering (July 17, 1745January 29, 1829) was the third United States Secretary of State, serving under Presidents George Washington and John Adams. He also represented Massachusetts in both houses of United States Congress, Congress as ...

in March of 1795 for the frigates that were to be constructed. Joshua Humphreys designed these frigates to be the young Navy's

capital ship The capital ships of a navy are its most important warships; they are generally the larger ships when compared to other warships in their respective fleet. A capital ship is generally a leading or a primary ship in a naval fleet. Strategic i ...

s, and so ''President'' and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than standard frigates of the period. Forman Cheeseman, and later Christian Bergh, were in charge of her construction. Her first duties with the newly formed United States Navy were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the

Quasi War The Quasi-War was an undeclared war from 1798 to 1800 between the United States and the French First Republic. It was fought almost entirely at sea, primarily in the Caribbean and off the East Coast of the United States, with minor actions in ...

with France and to engage in a

punitive expedition A punitive expedition is a military journey undertaken to punish a political entity or any group of people outside the borders of the punishing state or union. It is usually undertaken in response to perceived disobedient or morally wrong beha ...

against the

Barbary pirates The Barbary corsairs, Barbary pirates, Ottoman corsairs, or naval mujahideen (in Muslim sources) were mainly Muslim corsairs and privateers who operated from the largely independent Barbary states. This area was known in Europe as the Barba ...

in the

First Barbary War The First Barbary War (1801–1805), also known as the Tripolitan War and the Barbary Coast War, was a conflict during the 1801–1815 Barbary Wars, in which the United States fought against Ottoman Tripolitania. Tripolitania had declared war ...

. On 16 May 1811, ''President'' was at the center of the Little Belt affair; her crew mistakenly identified as , which had impressed a sailor from an American brig. The ships exchanged cannon fire for several minutes. Subsequent American and British investigations placed responsibility for the attack on each other without a resolution. The incident contributed to tensions between the U.S. and Britain that led to the

War of 1812 The War of 1812 was fought by the United States and its allies against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom and its allies in North America. It began when the United States United States declaration of war on the Uni ...

. During the war, ''President'' made several extended cruises, patrolling as far away as the

English Channel The English Channel, also known as the Channel, is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates Southern England from northern France. It links to the southern part of the North Sea by the Strait of Dover at its northeastern end. It is the busi ...

and

Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...

; she captured the armed

schooner A schooner ( ) is a type of sailing ship, sailing vessel defined by its Rig (sailing), rig: fore-and-aft rigged on all of two or more Mast (sailing), masts and, in the case of a two-masted schooner, the foremast generally being shorter than t ...

and numerous

merchant ship A merchant ship, merchant vessel, trading vessel, or merchantman is a watercraft that transports cargo or carries passengers for hire. This is in contrast to pleasure craft, which are used for personal recreation, and naval ships, which are ...

s. In January 1815, after having been

blockade A blockade is the act of actively preventing a country or region from receiving or sending out food, supplies, weapons, or communications, and sometimes people, by military force. A blockade differs from an embargo or sanction, which are ...

d in New York for a year by the Royal Navy, ''President'' attempted to run the blockade, and was chased by a blockading squadron. During the chase, she was engaged and crippled by the frigate off the coast of the city. The British squadron captured ''President'' soon after, and the Royal Navy took her into service as HMS ''President'' until she was broken up in 1818. ''President''s design was copied and used to build the next in 1829.

Design and construction

During the 1790s, American

merchant vessel A merchant ship, merchant vessel, trading vessel, or merchantman is a watercraft that transports cargo or carries passengers for hire. This is in contrast to pleasure craft, which are used for personal recreation, and naval ships, which a ...

s began to fall prey to

in the

Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern ...

, most notably from

Algiers Algiers is the capital city of Algeria as well as the capital of the Algiers Province; it extends over many Communes of Algeria, communes without having its own separate governing body. With 2,988,145 residents in 2008Census 14 April 2008: Offi ...

. Congress's response was the Naval Act of 1794.Allen (1909), pp. 41–42. The Act provided funds for the construction of six frigates; however, it included a clause stating that construction of the ships would cease if the United States agreed to peace terms with Algiers.Beach (1986), p. 29.''An Act to provide a Naval Armament''. (1794).

Library of Congress The Library of Congress (LOC) is a research library in Washington, D.C., serving as the library and research service for the United States Congress and the ''de facto'' national library of the United States. It also administers Copyright law o ...

. Retrieved 17 February 2011. Joshua Humphreys' design was long on

keel The keel is the bottom-most longitudinal structural element of a watercraft, important for stability. On some sailboats, it may have a fluid dynamics, hydrodynamic and counterbalancing purpose as well. The keel laying, laying of the keel is often ...

and narrow of beam (width) to allow for mounting very heavy guns. The design incorporated a diagonal scantling (rib) scheme to limit hogging (warping); the ships were given extremely heavy planking. This gave the hull greater strength than those of more lightly built frigates. Humphreys developed his design after realizing that the fledgling United States Navy could not match the navies of the European states for size. He therefore designed his frigates to be able to overpower other frigates, but with the speed to escape from a

ship of the line A ship of the line was a type of naval warship constructed during the Age of Sail from the 17th century to the mid-19th century. The ship of the line was designed for the naval tactics in the Age of Sail, naval tactic known as the line of battl ...

.Toll (2006), pp. 49–53.Beach (1986), pp. 29–30, 33.Allen (1909), pp. 42–45.

named ''President'' in order to reflect a principle of the

United States Constitution The Constitution of the United States is the Supremacy Clause, supreme law of the United States, United States of America. It superseded the Articles of Confederation, the nation's first constitution, on March 4, 1789. Originally includi ...

.Toll (2006), p. 61. In a report on progress of construction dated 12 December, 1795 her keel had been completed, laid on the blocks and bolted together, and many parts received. Also noted that a large schooner carrying frame pieces along with other cargo had wrecked on Cape Hatteras on an unspecified date and was lost with all of her cargo. In March 1796 a peace accord was announced between the United States and Algiers. Construction was suspended in accordance with the Naval Act of 1794. At the onset of the

Quasi-War The Quasi-War was an undeclared war from 1798 to 1800 between the United States and the French First Republic. It was fought almost entirely at sea, primarily in the Caribbean and off the East Coast of the United States, with minor actions in ...

with France in 1798, funds were approved to complete her construction, and her keel was laid at a shipyard in New York City. Her original naval constructor was Forman Cheeseman and the superintendent was Captain Silas Talbot.Toll (2006), p. 107. Based on experience Humphreys gained during construction of ''President''s

sister ship A sister ship is a ship of the same Ship class, class or of virtually identical design to another ship. Such vessels share a nearly identical hull and superstructure layout, similar size, and roughly comparable features and equipment. They o ...

s, and , he instructed Cheeseman to make alterations to the frigate's design. These included raising the

gun deck The term gun deck used to refer to a deck aboard a ship that was primarily used for the mounting of cannon A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical prope ...

by and moving the main mast further rearward. ''President'' was built to a length of

between perpendiculars Length between perpendiculars (often abbreviated as p/p, p.p., pp, LPP, LBP or Length BPP) is the length of a ship along the summer load line from the forward surface of the stem, or main bow perpendicular member, to the after surface of the ster ...

and a beam of . Although construction was begun at New York in the shipyard of Foreman Cheesman, work on her was discontinued in 1796. Construction resumed in 1798, under Christian Bergh and naval constructor William Doughty.Canney, Donald (2001), Sailing Warships of the US Navy p. 38.

Armament

''President''s nominal rating was that of a 44-gun ship. However, she usually carried over 50 guns.Roosevelt (1883), pp. 55–56. and was pierced for 64. During her service in the

, ''President'' was armed with a battery of 55 guns: thirty-two 24-pounder (10.9 kg) cannon, twenty-two 42-pounder (19 kg)

carronade A carronade is a short, smoothbore, cast-iron cannon which was used by the Royal Navy. It was first produced by the Carron Company, an ironworks in Falkirk, Scotland, and was used from the last quarter of the 18th century to the mid-19th cen ...

s, and one 18-pounder (8 kg)

long gun A long gun is a category of firearms with long Gun barrel, barrels. In small arms, a ''long gun'' or longarm is generally designed to be held by both hands and braced against the shoulder, in contrast to a handgun, which can be fired being held w ...

. During her Royal Navy service as HMS ''President'', she was initially rated at 50 guns, although she was at this stage armed with 60 cannons—thirty 24-pounder guns (10.9 kg) on the upper deck, twenty-eight 42-pounder (19 kg) carronades on the spar deck, plus two more 24-pounder guns on the forecastle. In February 1817, she was again re-rated, this time to 60 guns. Unlike modern Navy vessels, ships of this era had no permanent battery of guns. Guns were portable and were often exchanged between ships as situations warranted. Each commanding officer modified his vessel's armaments to his liking, taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of personnel aboard, and planned routes to be sailed. Consequently, a vessel's armament would change often during its career; permanent records of the changes were not generally kept.Jennings (1966), pp. 17–19.

Quasi and First Barbary Wars

''President'' launched on 10 April 1800—the last of the original six frigates to do so. After her fitting out, she departed for

Guadeloupe Guadeloupe is an Overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France in the Caribbean. It consists of six inhabited islands—Basse-Terre Island, Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Guadeloupe, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galant ...

on 5 August with Captain

Thomas Truxtun Commodore Thomas Truxtun (February 17, 1755 – May 5, 1822) was a United States Navy officer and politician. During the American Revolutionary War, he served as a privateer. Truxtun eventually rose to the rank of Commodore in the late eighteen ...

in command. She departed Sandy Hook on 5 September. On 16 September she recaptured British ship "Ruth" from a French privateer () that had captured her the day before. On 16 October she detained and sent into St. Kitts schooner "Little George" without papers, but flying a Swedish flag, to determine ownership. She conducted routine patrols during the latter part of the Quasi-War and made several recaptures of American merchant ships. Nevertheless, her service in this period was uneventful. She returned to the United States sighting the

Cape Henry Cape Henry is a cape on the Atlantic shore of Virginia located in the northeast corner of Virginia Beach. It is the southern boundary of the entrance to the long estuary of the Chesapeake Bay. Across the mouth of the bay to the north is Cape Ch ...

Lighthouse on 16 February, and was in Hampton Roads on 17 February. after a peace treaty with France was ratified on 3 February 1801.Allen (1909), pp. 217, 221. During the Quasi-War, the United States paid

tribute A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of lands which the state con ...

to the

Barbary States The Barbary Coast (also Barbary, Berbery, or Berber Coast) were the coastal regions of central and western North Africa, more specifically, the Maghreb and the Ottoman borderlands consisting of the regencies in Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, a ...

to ensure that they would not seize or harass American merchant ships.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 215–216. In 1801 Yusuf Karamanli of Tripoli, dissatisfied with the amount of tribute in comparison to that paid to

, demanded an immediate payment of $250,000.Allen (1905), pp. 88, 90.

Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (, 1743July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the United States Declaration of Indepe ...

responded by sending a squadron of warships to protect American merchant ships in the Mediterranean and to pursue peace with the Barbary States.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 228.Allen (1905), p. 92. On 22 May, 1801 Capt. Truxton turned over command to Capt. Richard Dale. In May, "Commodore" Richard Dale selected ''President'' as his

flagship A flagship is a vessel used by the commanding officer of a group of navy, naval ships, characteristically a flag officer entitled by custom to fly a distinguishing flag. Used more loosely, it is the lead ship in a fleet of vessels, typically ...

for the assignment in the Mediterranean. Dale's orders were to present a

show of force A show of force is a military operation intended to warn (such as a warning shot) or to intimidate an opponent by showcasing a capability or will to act if one is provoked. Shows of force may also be executed by police forces and other armed, n ...

off Algiers, Tripoli, and

Tunis Tunis (, ') is the capital city, capital and largest city of Tunisia. The greater metropolitan area of Tunis, often referred to as "Grand Tunis", has about 2,700,000 inhabitants. , it is the third-largest city in the Maghreb region (after Casabl ...

and maintain peace with promises of tribute. Dale was authorized to commence hostilities at his discretion if any Barbary State had declared war by the time of his arrival. Dale's squadron consisted of ''President'', , , and .Cooper (1856), p. 151. She sailed 1 June, 1801 from Hampton Roads. The squadron arrived at

Gibraltar Gibraltar ( , ) is a British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory and British overseas cities, city located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula, on the Bay of Gibraltar, near the exit of the Mediterranean Sea into the A ...

on 1 July; ''President'' and ''Enterprise'' quickly continued to Algiers, where their presence convinced the regent to withdraw threats he had made against American merchant ships.Allen (1905), pp. 94–95.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 231. ''President'' and ''Enterprise'' subsequently made appearances at

and Tripoli before ''President'' arrived at

Malta Malta, officially the Republic of Malta, is an island country in Southern Europe located in the Mediterranean Sea, between Sicily and North Africa. It consists of an archipelago south of Italy, east of Tunisia, and north of Libya. The two ...

on 16 August to replenish drinking water supplies.Allen (1905), p. 95. Blockading the harbor of Tripoli on 24 August, ''President'' captured a Greek vessel with Tripolitan soldiers aboard. Dale negotiated an exchange of prisoners that resulted in the release of several Americans held captive in Tripoli.Cooper (1856), p. 153.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 232–233. ''President'' arrived at Gibraltar on 3 September.Allen (1905), p. 98. While anchored in Algeciras Bay on 22 October one of her boats was sent to Gibraltar, about 5 1/2 miles away, but capsized with all on board, except one, was lost. While leaving

Mahón Mahón (), officially Maó (, ; formerly spelled ''Mahó''), and also written as Mahon or Port Mahon in English, is the capital and second largest city of Menorca. The city is located on the eastern coast of the island, which is part of the ar ...

, under control of a Pilot, on 30 November, ''President'' struck a large rock while traveling at . The impact brought Dale on deck and he successfully navigated ''President'' out of danger. An inspection at Toulon revealed that the impact had twisted off a 16-17 foot section of the forward part of her keel, the lower stem was gone, and other damages.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 233. Repairs were finished on 15 January, 1802. ''President'' remained in the Mediterranean until 11 March 1802; She departed for the United States and arrived on 14 April and was placed "in ordinary".Allen (1905), pp. 99–100. Although ''President'' remained in the United States, operations against the Barbary States continued. A second squadron assembled under the command of Richard Valentine Morris in . Morris' poor performance resulted in his recall and subsequent dismissal from the Navy in 1803.Toll (2006), p. 173. A third squadron assembled under the command of Edward Preble in ; by July 1804, they had fought the Battle of Tripoli Harbor.Allen (1905), p. 200.

Second Barbary patrol

On 21 March, 1804 The Secretary of the Navy ordered Lt. Cassin, supervisor of the Washington Navy Yard, to prepare her for sea. She was recommissioned on 2 April. In April 1804, President Jefferson decided to reinforce Preble's squadron. ''President'', ''Congress'', ''Constellation'', and ''Essex'' prepared to sail as soon as possible under the direction of Commodore Samuel Barron.Allen (1905), pp. 198–199. Barron selected ''President'' as his flagship, but she required a new

bowsprit The bowsprit of a sailing vessel is a spar (sailing), spar extending forward from the vessel's prow. The bowsprit is typically held down by a bobstay that counteracts the forces from the forestay, forestays. The bowsprit’s purpose is to create ...

and repairs to her masts and rigging. Some two months passed before the squadron was ready to sail. She left the Washington Navy Yard 25 May. She arrived at Hampton Roads on 13 June. They departed the Capes 5 July and arrived at Gibraltar on 12 August.Allen (1905), p. 218.Toll (2006), pp. 224–227. ''President'' left Gibraltar on 16 August with ''Constellation''; the frigates paused at Malta before arriving off Tripoli on 10 September, joining ''Constitution'', , and .Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 297. Sighting three ships running the blockade of Tripoli, the squadron moved in to capture them; during the pursuit, a sudden change in wind direction caused ''President'' to collide with ''Constitution''. The collision caused serious damage to ''Constitution''s stern, bow, and

figurehead In politics, a figurehead is a practice of who ''de jure'' (in name or by law) appears to hold an important and often supremely powerful title or office, yet '' de facto'' (in reality) exercises little to no actual power. This usually means that ...

. Two of the captured ships were sent to Malta with ''Constitution''; ''President'' sailed to

Syracuse, Sicily Syracuse ( ; ; ) is a historic city on the Italian island of Sicily, the capital of the Italian province of Syracuse. The city is notable for its rich Greek and Roman history, culture, amphitheatres, architecture, and as the birthplace ...

, arriving on 27 August.Allen (1905), pp. 219–220.Toll (2006), pp. 250–251. When Barron arrived in the Mediterranean, his seniority of rank over Preble entitled him to assume the duties of commodore.Toll (2006), p. 250. However, soon after replacing Preble, Barron went ashore at Syracuse in poor health and became bedridden.Allen (1905), p. 220. Under command of Captain George Cox, ''President'' began routine blockade duties of Tripoli during the winter months of 1804–05. In late April 1805, ''Constitution'' captured three ships off Tripoli. ''President'' escorted them to port at Malta before rejoining ''Constitution''.Allen (1905), pp. 220–223. Barron's fragile health necessitated his resignation; he passed command to John Rodgers in late May 1805.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 300. Barron ordered Cox to command ''Essex'', and turned ''President'' over to his brother, James Barron, on 29 May. On 3 June, after the

Battle of Derne The Battle of Derna at Derna, Cyrenaica, was a military engagement in April–May 1805 of a mercenary army recruited and led by United States Marines under the command of U.S. Army Lieutenant William Eaton, diplomatic Consul to Tripoli, and ...

, the U.S signed a peace treaty with Tripoli.Allen (1905), p. 250. ''President'' sailed for the United States on 13 July, carrying the ailing Barron, also Capt. Bainbridge and many sailors released from captivity in Tripoli.Allen (1905), p. 270. She arrived at Hampton Roads 11 September, 1805 and was put in ordinary at the Washington Navy Yard on 22 September.

''Little Belt'' Affair

In 1807, the ''Chesapeake''-''Leopard'' Affair heightened tensions between the United States and Britain. In preparation for further hostilities, Congress began authorizing naval appropriations, and ''President'' recommissioned in 1809 under the command of Commodore John Rodgers. She made routine and uneventful patrols, mainly along the United States' eastern seaboard, until 1 May 1811, when the British frigate stopped the American brig ''Spitfire'' from New York and impressed a crewman.Beach (1986), p. 69.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 312.Cooper (1856), pp. 233, 235. Rodgers received orders to pursue ''Guerriere'', and ''President'' sailed immediately from

Fort Severn Fort Severn, in present-day Annapolis, Maryland, was built in 1808 on the same site as an earlier American Revolutionary War fort of 1776. Although intended to guard Annapolis harbor from British attack during the War of 1812, it never saw act ...

on 10 May. On 16 May, approximately northeast of

, a lookout spotted a sail on the horizon. Closing to investigate, Rodgers determined the sail belonged to a warship, and raised

signal flag Flag signals can mean any of various methods of using flags or pennants to send signals. Flags may have individual significance as signals, or two or more flags may be manipulated so that their relative positions convey symbols. Flag signals allo ...

s to identify his ship. The unidentified ship, later learned to be —a 20-gun

sixth rate In the rating system of the Royal Navy used to categorise sailing warships, a sixth-rate was the designation for small warships mounting between 20 and 28 carriage-mounted guns on a single deck, sometimes with smaller guns on the upper works an ...

—hoisted signal flags in return, but the hoist was not understood by ''President''s crew. ''Little Belt'' sailed southward and Rodgers, believing the ship to be ''Guerriere'', pursued.Cooper (1856), pp. 235–236.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 313–314. Darkness set in before the ships were within hailing distance, and Rodgers hailed twice, only to have the same question returned to him: "What ship is that?"Toll (2006), pp. 321–322. According to Rodgers, immediately after the exchange of hails, ''Little Belt'' fired a shot that tore through ''President''s rigging. Rodgers returned fire. ''Little Belt'' promptly answered with three guns, and then a whole broadside. Rodgers ordered his gun crews to fire at will; several accurate broadsides heavily damaged ''Little Belt'' in return. After five minutes of firing, ''President''s crew realized their adversary was much smaller than a frigate and Rodgers ordered a cease fire. However, ''Little Belt'' fired again and ''President'' answered with more broadsides. After ''Little Belt'' became silent, ''President'' stood off and waited overnight. At dawn it was obvious that ''Little Belt'' was greatly damaged from the fight; Rodgers sent a boat over from ''President'' to offer assistance in repairing the damage. Her Captain, Arthur Bingham, acknowledged the damage; declining any help, he sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia.Beach (1986), p. 70. ''President'' had one sailor slightly wounded in the exchange, while ''Little Belt'' suffered 31 killed or wounded.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 314–315.Cooper (1856), pp. 236–237. Upon ''President''s return to port, the U.S. Navy launched an investigation into the incident. Gathering testimony from ''President''s officers and crewmen, they determined that ''Little Belt'' had fired the first shot in the encounter. In the Royal Navy investigation, Captain Bingham insisted that ''President'' had fired the first shot and continued firing for 45 minutes, rather than the five minutes Rodgers claimed. In all subsequent reports, both captains continually insisted that the other ship had fired the first shot. Reaching a stalemate, the American and British governments quietly dropped the matter.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 315–316.Cooper (1856), pp. 237–238.Toll (2006), p. 323.

War of 1812

The United States declared war against Britain on 18 June 1812. Three days later, within an hour of receiving official word of the declaration, Commodore Rodgers sailed from New York City. The commodore sailed aboard ''President'', leading a squadron consisting of ''United States'', ''Congress'', , and on a 70-day North Atlantic cruise.Roosevelt (1883), p. 73.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 322. A passing American merchant ship informed Rodgers about a fleet of British merchantmen en route to Britain from Jamaica. Rodgers and his squadron sailed in pursuit, and on 23 June they encountered what was later learned to be .Cooper (1856), pp. 244–245. ''President'' pursued the ship, and in what is recorded as the first shot of the War of 1812, Rodgers himself aimed and fired a bowchaser at ''Belvidera'', striking her rudder and penetrating the gun room.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 323.Roosevelt (1883), p. 74. Upon ''President''s fourth shot at ''Belvidera'', a cannon one deck below Rodgers burst, killing or wounding 16 sailors and throwing Rodgers to the deck with enough force to break his leg.Roosevelt (1883), p. 75.Cooper (1856), pp. 246–247. The ensuing confusion allowed ''Belvidera'' to fire her stern chasers, killing six more men aboard ''President''. Rodgers kept up the pursuit, using his bow chasers to severely damage ''Belvidera''s rigging, but his two broadsides had little effect. The crew of ''Belvidera'' quickly made repairs to the rigging. They cut loose her anchors and boats and pumped drinking water overboard to lighten her load, thereby increasing her speed. ''Belvidera'' soon gained enough speed to distance herself from ''President'', and Rodgers abandoned the pursuit. ''Belvidera'' sailed to Halifax to deliver the news that war had been declared.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 324–325.Roosevelt (1883), p. 76. ''President'' and her squadron returned to the pursuit of the Jamaican fleet, and on 1 July began to follow the trail of coconut shells and orange peels the Jamaicans had left behind them.Roosevelt (1883), p. 77. ''President'' sailed to within one

day's journey A day's journey in pre-modern literature, including the Bible and ancient geographers and ethnographers such as Herodotus, is a measurement of distance. In the Bible, it is not as precisely defined as other Biblical measurements of distance; the ...

of the English Channel, but never sighted the convoy. Rodgers called off the pursuit on 13 July. During their return trip to Boston, Rodgers' squadron captured seven merchant ships and recaptured one American vessel.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 325–326. After some refitting, ''President'', still under Rodgers' command, sailed on 8 October with ''Congress'', ''United States'', and ''Argus''. On 12 October, ''United States'' and ''Argus'' parted from the squadron for their own patrols.Roosevelt (1883), p. 106. On 10 October, ''President'' chased , but failed to overtake her. On 17 October ''President'' captured the British packet ship ''Swallow'', which carried a large amount of currency on board.Cooper (1856), p. 262.Roosevelt (1883), p. 107. On 31 October, ''President'' and ''Congress'' began pursuit of , which was escorting two merchant ships. The chase lasted about three hours, and in that time ''Congress'' captured the merchant ship ''Argo''. Meanwhile, ''President'' kept after ''Galatea'' and drew very close, but lost sight of her in the night. ''Congress'' and ''President'' remained together, but did not find any ships to capture during November. Returning to the United States, they passed north of Bermuda and proceeded toward the

Virginia capes The Virginia Capes are the two capes, Cape Charles to the north and Cape Henry to the south, that define the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay on the eastern coast of North America. The importance of the Chesapeake Bay in American history has lo ...

; they arrived in Boston on 31 December, having taken nine prizes. ''President'' and ''Congress'' found themselves

d there by the Royal Navy until April 1813.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 426–427. Commodore John Rodgers

On 30 April, ''President'' and ''Congress'' sailed through the blockade on their third cruise of the war. On 2 May, they pursued , but she outran them and escaped.Roosevelt (1883), p. 174. ''President'' parted company with ''Congress'' on 8 May, and Rodgers set a course along the

Gulf Stream The Gulf Stream is a warm and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and flows through the Straits of Florida and up the eastern coastline of the United States, then veers east near 36°N latitude (North Carolin ...

to search for merchant ships to capture. By June, not having come across a single ship, ''President'' turned north; she put into North Bergen, Norway, on 27 June to replenish her drinking water.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 521–522. Sailing soon after, ''President'' captured two British merchant ships, which helped to replenish her stores.Roosevelt (1883), p. 175. On 10 June ''President'' captured the outward-bound Falmouth packet ''Duke of Montrose'', Captain Aaron Groub Blewett, which managed to throw her mails overboard before ''President'' could send a prize crew aboard. ''President'' made a

cartel A cartel is a group of independent market participants who collaborate with each other as well as agreeing not to compete with each other in order to improve their profits and dominate the market. A cartel is an organization formed by producers ...

of ''Duke of Montrose'', putting all of ''President''s prisoners on board and then sending her into Falmouth under the command of an American officer. When ''Duke of Montrose'' arrived at Falmouth the British Government abrogated the cartel on the grounds that they had advised the American Government that the British would not recognize agreements entered into on the high seas. Around the same time, two Royal Navy ships came into view. ''President'' set all sails to escape, and outran them in a chase lasting 80 hours. Rodgers reported that his decision to flee the ships was based on identifying them as a

and a frigate. Royal Navy records later revealed that the vessels were actually the 32-gun frigate and the 16-gun fireship .Roosevelt (1883), pp. 175–176. Spending a few days near the Irish Channel, ''President'' captured several more merchant ships. She then set a course for the United States. In late September, she encountered along the east coast of the United States. Rodgers used his signal flags to trick ''Highflyer'' into believing that ''President'' was .Hepper (1994), p. 148. Lieut. George Hutchinson, ''Highflyer''s captain, came aboard ''President'' only to discover he had walked into a trap; ''President'' captured ''Highflyer'' without a shot being fired. ''President''s long cruise netted her 11 merchant ships, in addition to ''Highflyer''.Cooper (1856), p. 332.Roosevelt (1883), pp. 176–177. On 4 December 1813, ''President'' sailed from Providence, Rhode Island. On the 25th, she encountered two frigates in the dark, one of which fired at her. Rodgers believed the ships to be British, but they were two French frigates, and .Roosevelt (1883), p. 217. Afterward, Rodgers headed toward Barbados for an eight-week cruise in the

West Indies The West Indies is an island subregion of the Americas, surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, which comprises 13 independent island country, island countries and 19 dependent territory, dependencies in thr ...

, reportedly making three small captures, among them the British

s ''Wanderer'', which she captured on 4 January 1814 in the

Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five borders of the oceans, oceanic divisions, with an area of about . It covers approximately 17% of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface and about 24% of its water surface area. During the ...

at approximately and sank, and ''Edward'', which she captured and sank on 9 January. Returning to New York City on 18 February 1814, ''President'' encountered HMS ''Loire'', which turned to escape once the latter's crew realized ''President'' was a 44-gun frigate.Roosevelt (1883), p. 286.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 541. ''President'' remained in New York for the duration of 1814 due to the harbor's blockade by a British squadron consisting of , , ''Pomone'', and ''Tenedos''.Roosevelt (1883), p. 401.

Capture

Stephen Decatur Commodore (United States), Commodore Stephen Decatur Jr. (; January 5, 1779 – March 22, 1820) was a United States Navy officer. He was born on the eastern shore of Maryland in Worcester County, Maryland, Worcester County. His father, Ste ...

assumed command of ''President'' in December 1814, planning a cruise to the West Indies to prey on British shipping. In mid-January 1815, a snowy

gale A gale is a strong wind; the word is typically used as a descriptor in nautical contexts. The U.S. National Weather Service defines a gale as sustained surface wind moving at a speed between .

with strong winds forced the British blockading squadron away from

New York Harbor New York Harbor is a bay that covers all of the Upper Bay. It is at the mouth of the Hudson River near the East River tidal estuary on the East Coast of the United States. New York Harbor is generally synonymous with Upper New York Bay, ...

, giving Decatur the opportunity to put to sea. On the evening of 14 January, ''President'' headed out of the harbor but ran aground, the result of harbor pilots incorrectly marking a safe passage. Stranded on the sand bar, ''President'' lifted and dropped with the incoming tide. Within two hours her hull had been damaged, her timbers twisted, and masts sprung. Damage to her keel caused the ship to hog and sag. Decatur was finally able to float ''President'' off the bar and, assessing the damage, he decided to return to New York for repairs; however, the wind direction was not favorable and ''President'' was forced to head out to sea.Roosevelt (1883), pp. 401–402.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 641.Cooper (1856), p. 429. Unaware of the exact location of the blockading squadron, Decatur set a course to avoid them and seek a safe port, but approximately two hours later the squadron's sails were spotted on the horizon. ''President'' changed course to outrun them, but the damage she suffered the night before had significantly reduced her speed.Cooper (1856), p. 430. Attempting to gain speed, Decatur ordered expendable cargo thrown overboard; by late afternoon of 15 January, HMS ''Endymion'' under Captain Henry Hope came alongside and proceeded to fire broadsides.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 641–642.Roosevelt (1883), p. 402. Decatur planned to bring ''President'' in close to ''Endymion'', whereby ''President''s crew could board and capture the opposing ship and sail her to New York. (''President'' would be

scuttled Scuttling is the act of deliberately sinking a ship by allowing water to flow into the hull, typically by its crew opening holes in its hull. Scuttling may be performed to dispose of an abandoned, old, or captured vessel; to prevent the vesse ...

to prevent her capture).Cooper (1856), p. 431.Toll (2006), p. 443. Making several attempts to close on ''Endymion'', Decatur discovered that ''President''s damage limited her maneuverability, allowing ''Endymion'' to anticipate, and draw away from, positions favorable for boarding. Faced with this new dilemma, Decatur ordered bar and chain shot fired to disable ''Endymion''s sails and rigging, the idea being to shake his pursuer and allow ''President'' to proceed to a safe port without being followed. At noon, ''Endymion'', being the much better sailer, was close-hauled, outpacing her squadron and leaving them behind. At 2 pm, she gained on ''President'' and took position on the American ship's quarter, shooting into ''President'' as she tried to escape. ''Endymion'' was able to rake ''President'' three times and did considerable damage to her; by contrast, ''President'' primarily directed her fire at ''Endymion's''

rigging Rigging comprises the system of ropes, cables and chains, which support and control a sailing ship or sail boat's masts and sails. ''Standing rigging'' is the fixed rigging that supports masts including shrouds and stays. ''Running rigg ...

in order to slow her down during the two-hour engagement.Roosevelt (1883), p. 403. Finally at 7:58 pm, ''President'' ceased fire and hoisted a light in her rigging, indicating that she had surrendered. ''Endymion'' ceased firing on the defeated American ship but did not board to take possession of her prize, due to a lack of undamaged boats. ''Endymion''s foresails had been damaged in the engagement and while she hove to for repairs, Decatur took advantage of the situation and, despite having struck, made off to escape at 8:30 pm; ''Endymion'', hastily completed repairs and resumed the chase at 8:52 pm. ''President'' drew away while her crew made hurried repairs of their own. Within two hours, one of her lookouts spotted the remainder of the enemy squadron drawing near. ''President'' continued her escape attempt, but by nightfall HMS ''Pomone'' and ''Tenedos'' had caught up and began firing broadsides. Realizing his situation, Decatur surrendered ''President'' again, just before midnight.Cooper (1856), p. 432.Roosevelt (1883), p. 404.

As HMS ''President''

Now in possession of the Royal Navy, ''President'' and her crew were ordered to proceed to

Bermuda Bermuda is a British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean. The closest land outside the territory is in the American state of North Carolina, about to the west-northwest. Bermuda is an ...

with ''Endymion''. During the journey, they encountered a dangerous gale. The storm destroyed ''President''s masts and strained her timbers so badly that all the upper-deck guns were thrown overboard to prevent her from sinking.Roosevelt (1883), p. 405. The

, Garness, master, brought 400 prisoners from ''President'' from Bermuda back to New York. On 7 April 1815 ''Clarendon'' grounded at Sandy Hook but crew, passengers, and prisoners were all saved.Multiple News Items. ''Providence Patriot, Columbian Phenix'' (Providence, Rhode Island), 15 April 1815; Issue 14. Upon the prisoners' return to the United States, a U.S. Navy court martial board acquitted Decatur, his officers, and his men of any wrongdoing in the surrender of ''President''.Toll (2006), p. 445.Cooper (1856), p. 433. ''President'' and ''Endymion'' continued to England, arriving at

Spithead Spithead is an eastern area of the Solent and a roadstead for vessels off Gilkicker Point in Hampshire, England. It is protected from all winds except those from the southeast, with the Isle of Wight lying to the south-west. Spithead and the ch ...

on 28 March. ''President'' was commissioned into the Royal Navy under the name HMS ''President''. Her initial rating was set at 50 guns, although she was at this stage armed with 60 cannons—thirty 24-pounders (10.9 kg) on the upper deck, twenty-eight 42-pounder (19 kg) carronades on the spar deck, plus two more 24-pounder guns on the forecastle. In February 1817 she was again re-rated, this time to 60 guns. In March 1818 she was considered for refitting. A

drydock A dry dock (sometimes drydock or dry-dock) is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in, then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform. Dry docks are used for the construction, maintenance, ...

inspection revealed that the majority of her timber was defective or rotten and she was broken up at Portsmouth in June. ''President''s design was copied and used to build in 1829, although this was reportedly more of a political maneuver than a testament to the design: the Royal Navy wished to retain the name and likeness of the American ship on their register as a reminder to the United States and other nations of the capture.Gardiner (2000), pp. 97, 140–141.Beach (1986), p. 135.

Notes

Citations

References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:President (1800), USS Sailing frigates of the United States Navy War of 1812 ships of the United States Vessels captured from the United States Navy Barbary Wars American ships Ships built in New York City 1800 ships Ships in art Heavy frigates of the United States Navy