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Torticollis, also known as wry neck, is an extremely painful, dystonic condition defined by an abnormal, asymmetrical
head A head is the part of an organism which usually includes the ears, brain, forehead, cheeks, chin, eyes, nose, and mouth, each of which aid in various sensory functions such as sight, hearing, smell, and taste. Some very simple ani ...
or
neck The neck is the part of the body in many vertebrates that connects the head to the torso. It supports the weight of the head and protects the nerves that transmit sensory and motor information between the brain and the rest of the body. Addition ...
position, which may be due to a variety of causes. The term ''torticollis'' is derived . The most common case has no obvious cause, and the pain and difficulty in turning the head usually goes away after a few days, even without treatment in adults.


Signs and symptoms

Torticollis is a fixed or dynamic tilt, rotation, with flexion or extension of the head and/or neck. The type of torticollis can be described depending on the positions of the head and neck. * laterocollis: the head is tipped toward the shoulder * rotational torticollis: the head rotates along the longitudinal axis towards the shoulder * anterocollis: forward flexion of the head and neck and brings the chin towards the chest * retrocollis: hyperextension of head and neck backward bringing the back of the head towards the back A combination of these movements may often be observed. Torticollis can be a disorder in itself as well as a symptom in other conditions. Other signs and symptoms include: *
Neck pain The neck is the part of the body in many vertebrates that connects the head to the torso. It supports the weight of the head and protects the nerves that transmit sensory and motor information between the brain and the rest of the body. Addition ...
* Occasional formation of a mass * Thickened or tight
sternocleidomastoid muscle The sternocleidomastoid muscle is one of the largest and most superficial cervical muscles. The primary actions of the muscle are rotation of the head to the opposite side and Anatomical terms of motion#Flexion and extension, flexion of the neck. ...
* Tenderness on the cervical spine * Tremor in head * Unequal shoulder heights * Decreased neck movement


Causes

A multitude of conditions may lead to the development of torticollis including: muscular
fibrosis Fibrosis, also known as fibrotic scarring, is the development of fibrous connective tissue in response to an injury. Fibrosis can be a normal connective tissue deposition or excessive tissue deposition caused by a disease. Repeated injuries, ch ...
, congenital spine abnormalities, or toxic or
traumatic brain injury A traumatic brain injury (TBI), also known as an intracranial injury, is an injury to the brain caused by an external force. TBI can be classified based on severity ranging from mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI/concussion) to severe traumati ...
. A rough categorization discerns between
congenital A birth defect is an abnormal condition that is present at childbirth, birth, regardless of its cause. Birth defects may result in disability, disabilities that may be physical disability, physical, intellectual disability, intellectual, or dev ...
torticollis and acquired torticollis. Other categories include: * Osseous * Traumatic * CNS/PNS * Ocular * Non-muscular soft tissue * Spasmodic * Drug induced * Oral ties (lip and tongue ties)


Congenital muscular torticollis

Congenital muscular torticollis is the most common torticollis that is present at birth. Congenital muscular torticollis is the third most common congenital musculoskeletal deformity in children. The cause of congenital muscular torticollis is unclear. Birth trauma or intrauterine malposition is considered to be the cause of damage to the
sternocleidomastoid muscle The sternocleidomastoid muscle is one of the largest and most superficial cervical muscles. The primary actions of the muscle are rotation of the head to the opposite side and Anatomical terms of motion#Flexion and extension, flexion of the neck. ...
in the neck. Other alterations to the muscle tissue arise from repetitive microtrauma within the womb or a sudden change in the calcium concentration in the body that causes a prolonged period of muscle contraction. Any of these mechanisms can result in a shortening or excessive contraction of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, which curtails its
range of motion Range of motion (or ROM) is the linear or angular distance that a moving object may normally travel while properly attached to another. In biomechanics and strength training, ROM refers to the angular distance and direction a joint can move be ...
in both rotation and lateral bending. The head is typically tilted in lateral bending toward the affected muscle and rotated toward the opposite side. In other words, the head itself is tilted in the direction of the shortened muscle, with the chin tilted in the opposite direction. Congenital torticollis is presented at 1–4 weeks of age, and a hard mass usually develops. It is normally diagnosed using ultrasonography and a color histogram or clinically by evaluating the infant's passive cervical range of motion. Congenital torticollis constitutes the majority of cases seen in paediatric clinical practice. The reported incidence of congenital torticollis is 0.3-2.0%. Sometimes a mass, such as a sternocleidomastoid tumor, is noted in the affected muscle. Congenital Muscular Torticollis is also defined by a fibrosis contracture of the sternocleidomastoid muscle on one side of the neck. Congenital torticollis may not resolve on its own, and can result in rare complications including
plagiocephaly Plagiocephaly, also known as flat head syndrome, is a condition characterized by an asymmetrical distortion (flattening of one side) of the skull. A mild and widespread form is characterized by a flat spot on the back or one side of the head caus ...
. Secondary complications associated with Congenital Muscular Torticollis include visual dysfunctions, facial asymmetry, delayed development, cervical scoliosis, and vertebral wedge degeneration which will have a serious impact on the child's appearance and even mental health. Benign paroxysmal torticollis is a rare disorder affecting infants. Recurrent attacks may last up to a week. The condition improves by age 2. The cause is thought to be genetic.


Acquired torticollis

Noncongenital muscular torticollis may result from muscle spasm, trauma, scarring or disease of cervical vertebrae, adenitis, tonsillitis, rheumatism, enlarged cervical glands, retropharyngeal abscess, or cerebellar tumors. It may be spasmodic (clonic) or permanent (tonic). The latter type may be due to Pott's Disease (tuberculosis of the spine). * A self-limiting spontaneously occurring form of torticollis with one or more painful neck muscles is by far the most common ('stiff neck') and will pass spontaneously in 1–4 weeks. Usually the
sternocleidomastoid muscle The sternocleidomastoid muscle is one of the largest and most superficial cervical muscles. The primary actions of the muscle are rotation of the head to the opposite side and Anatomical terms of motion#Flexion and extension, flexion of the neck. ...
or the
trapezius muscle The trapezius is a large paired trapezoid-shaped surface muscle that extends longitudinally from the occipital bone to the lower thoracic vertebrae of the human spine, spine and laterally to the spine of the scapula. It moves the scapula and ...
is involved. Sometimes draughts, colds, or unusual postures are implicated; however, in many cases, no clear cause is found. These episodes are commonly seen by physicians. Most commonly this self-limiting form relates to an untreated dental occlusal dysfunction, which is brought on by clenching and grinding the teeth during sleep. Once the occlusion is treated it will completely resolve. Treatment is accomplished with an occlusal appliance, and equilibration of the dentition. * Tumors of the skull base ( posterior fossa tumors) can compress the nerve supply to the neck and cause torticollis, and these problems must be treated surgically. * Infections in the posterior
pharynx The pharynx (: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the human mouth, mouth and nasal cavity, and above the esophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs respectively). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates ...
can irritate the nerves supplying the neck muscles and cause torticollis, and these infections may be treated with antibiotics if they are not too severe, but could require surgical
debridement Debridement is the medical removal of dead, damaged, or infected tissue to improve the healing potential of the remaining healthy tissue. Removal may be surgical, mechanical, chemical, autolytic (self-digestion), or by maggot therapy. In ...
in intractable cases. * Ear infections and surgical removal of the adenoids can cause an entity known as Grisel's syndrome, a subluxation of the upper cervical joints, mostly the atlantoaxial joint, due to inflammatory laxity of the ligaments caused by an infection. * The use of certain drugs, such as
antipsychotic Antipsychotics, previously known as neuroleptics and major tranquilizers, are a class of Psychiatric medication, psychotropic medication primarily used to manage psychosis (including delusions, hallucinations, paranoia or disordered thought), p ...
s, can cause torticollis. * Antiemetics - Neuroleptic Class - Phenothiazines * There are many other rare causes of torticollis. A very rare cause of acquired torticollis is fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), the hallmark of which is malformed great toes.


Spasmodic torticollis

Torticollis with recurrent, but transient contraction of the muscles of the neck and especially of the sternocleidomastoid, is called spasmodic torticollis. Synonyms are "intermittent torticollis", "cervical dystonia" or "idiopathic cervical dystonia", depending on cause.


Trochlear torticollis

Torticollis can be caused by damage to the
trochlear nerve The trochlear nerve (), ( lit. ''pulley-like'' nerve) also known as the fourth cranial nerve, cranial nerve IV, or CN IV, is a cranial nerve that innervates a single muscle - the superior oblique muscle of the eye (which operates through the pu ...
(fourth cranial nerve), which supplies the superior oblique muscle of the eye. The superior oblique muscle is involved in depression, abduction, and intorsion of the eye. When the trochlear nerve is damaged, the eye is extorted because the superior oblique is not functioning. The affected person will have vision problems unless they turn their head away from the side that is affected, causing intorsion of the eye and balancing out the extorsion of the eye. This can be diagnosed by the Bielschowsky test, also called the head-tilt test, where the head is turned to the affected side. A positive test occurs when the affected eye elevates, seeming to float up.


Anatomy

The main job of the sternocleidomastoid muscle is to help move the head and neck by turning the head to one side and bending the neck forward. The sternocleidomastoid muscle gets its blood from different arteries in the neck, which bring oxygen and nutrients to keep the muscle healthy. Torticollis can happen when there are issues with the sternocleidomastoid muscle, like if it's too short, causing the head and neck to be in an odd position. Torticollis can also be caused by problems with bones, muscles, or the spine in the neck, leading to difficulty moving the head and neck normally. Knowing about the sternocleidomastoid muscle and how it works is crucial for doctors to diagnose and treat torticollis correctly, so they can find and fix the problem causing it. Differences in how the sternocleidomastoid muscle is supplied with blood or nerves can affect how torticollis develops or how well treatments work, so it's important for doctors to consider these variations when planning treatment. Having a good understanding of the neck's anatomy helps doctors accurately diagnose torticollis and choose the best treatments to help patients feel better. The sternocleidomastoid muscle gets signals from nerves in the neck and head to contract and move properly. The underlying anatomical distortion causing torticollis is a shortened
sternocleidomastoid muscle The sternocleidomastoid muscle is one of the largest and most superficial cervical muscles. The primary actions of the muscle are rotation of the head to the opposite side and Anatomical terms of motion#Flexion and extension, flexion of the neck. ...
. This is the muscle of the neck that originates at the sternum and clavicle and inserts on the mastoid process of the temporal bone on the same side. There are two sternocleidomastoid muscles in the human body and when they both contract, the neck is flexed. The main blood supply for these muscles come from the occipital artery, superior thyroid artery, transverse scapular artery and transverse cervical artery. The main innervation to these muscles is from cranial nerve XI (the accessory nerve) but the second, third and fourth cervical nerves are also involved. Pathologies in these blood and nerve supplies can lead to torticollis.


Diagnosis

Evaluation of a child with torticollis begins with history taking to determine circumstances surrounding birth and any possibility of trauma or associated symptoms. Physical examination reveals decreased rotation and bending to the side opposite from the affected muscle. Some say that congenital cases more often involve the right side, but there is not complete agreement about this in published studies. Evaluation should include a thorough neurologic examination, and the possibility of associated conditions such as developmental dysplasia of the hip and clubfoot should be examined. Radiographs of the cervical spine should be obtained to rule out obvious bony abnormality, and MRI should be considered if there is concern about structural problems or other conditions.
Ultrasonography Medical ultrasound includes diagnostic techniques (mainly imaging) using ultrasound, as well as therapeutic applications of ultrasound. In diagnosis, it is used to create an image of internal body structures such as tendons, muscles, joints, ...
can be used to visualize muscle tissue, with a colour histogram generated to determine cross-sectional area and thickness of the muscle. Evaluation by an optometrist or an ophthalmologist should be considered in children to ensure that the torticollis is not caused by vision problems ( IV cranial nerve
palsy Palsy is a medical term which refers to various types of paralysisDan Agin, ''More Than Genes: What Science Can Tell Us About Toxic Chemicals, Development, and the Risk to Our Children'' (2009), p. 172. or paresis, often accompanied by weakness and ...
,
nystagmus Nystagmus is a condition of involuntary (or voluntary, in some cases) Eye movement (sensory), eye movement. People can be born with it but more commonly acquire it in infancy or later in life. In many cases it may result in visual impairment, re ...
-associated "null position", etc.). Differential diagnosis for torticollis includes * Cranial nerve IV palsy * Spasmus nutans * Sandifer syndrome *
Myasthenia gravis Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a long-term neuromuscular junction disease that leads to varying degrees of skeletal muscle weakness. The most commonly affected muscles are those of the eyes, face, and swallowing. It can result in double vision, ...
*
Cerebrospinal fluid leak A cerebrospinal fluid leak (CSF leak or CSFL) is a medical condition where the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that surrounds the brain and spinal cord leaks out of one or more holes or tears in the dura mater. A CSF leak is classed as either spontane ...
Cervical dystonia appearing in adulthood has been believed to be idiopathic in nature, as specific imaging techniques most often find no specific cause.


Treatment

Teaching people how to sit and stand properly can help reduce strain on the neck muscles and improve posture. Changing habits like bad posture or repetitive movements can help ease symptoms of torticollis. Wearing a special collar can also support the neck and keep it in the right position during daily activities. Using electrical devices have also been shown to reduce pain, make muscles work better, and relax tight muscles. Injecting a substance like Botox into overactive muscles can weaken them temporarily, allowing for better movement. If other treatments don't work, surgery might be needed to fix the muscles or bones causing torticollis.


Physical therapy

Physical therapy is an option for treating torticollis in a non-invasive and cost-effective manner. Physical therapy is seen as an early conservative intervention to minimize the intensity of the musculoskeletal disorder, leading to short durations of care as well as improved outcomes from treatment. The Physical Therapy Management of Congenital Muscular Torticollis Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (CMT CPG) reflects the recommendations and guidelines for physical therapists in diagnosing, treating and educating families of infants with congenital muscular torticollis. Physical therapists that reported using the 2013 CMT CPG in their practices saw patient torticollis resolution in as little as 6-months increase from 42%-61%. As of currently, there is an updated 2024 CMT CMG from the American Physical Therapy Association. In the children above 1 year of age, surgical release of the tight sternocleidomastoid muscle is indicated along with aggressive therapy and appropriate splinting. Occupational therapy rehabilitation in congenital muscular torticollis concentrates on observation, orthosis, gentle stretching, myofascial release techniques, parents’ counseling-training, and home exercise program. While outpatient infant physiotherapy is effective, home therapy performed by a parent or guardian is just as effective in reversing the effects of congenital torticollis. It is important for physical therapists to educate parents on the importance of their role in the treatment and to create a home treatment plan together with them for the best results for their child. Five components have been recognized as the "first choice intervention" in PT for treatment of torticollis and include * neck passive range of motion, * neck and trunk active range of motion, * development of symmetrical movement, * environmental adaptations, and * caregiver education In therapy, parents or guardians should expect their child to be provided with these important components, explained in detail below. Lateral neck
flexion Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terminology, anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of Organ (anatomy), organs, joints, Limb (anatomy), limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used de ...
and overall range of motion can be regained quicker in newborns when parents conduct physical therapy exercises several times a day. Physical therapists should teach parents and guardians to perform the following exercises: * Stretching the neck and trunk muscles actively. Parents can help promote this stretching at home with infant positioning. For example, prone positioning will encourage the child to lift their chin off the ground, thereby strengthening their bilateral neck and spine extensor muscles, and stretching their neck flexor muscles. Active rotation exercises in supine, sitting or prone position by using toys, lights and sounds to attract infant's attention to turn neck and look toward the non-affected side. *
Stretching Stretching is a form of physical exercise in which a specific muscle or tendon (or muscle group) is deliberately expanded and flexed in order to improve the muscle's felt elasticity and achieve comfortable muscle tone. The result is a feelin ...
the muscle in a prone position passively. Passive stretching is manual, and does not include infant involvement. Two people can be involved in these stretches, one person stabilizing the infant while the other holds the head and slowly brings it through the available range of motion. Passive stretching should not be painful to the child, and should be stopped if the child resists. Also, discontinue the stretch if changes in breathing or circulation are seen or felt. * Stretching the muscle in a lateral position supported by a pillow (have infant lie on the side with the neck supported by pillow). Affected side should be against the pillow to deviate the neck towards the non-affected side. * Environmental adaptations can control posture in strollers, car seats and swings (using U-shaped neck pillow or blankets to hold neck in neutral position) * Passive cervical rotation (much like stretching when being supported by a pillow, have affected side down) * Position infant in the crib with affected side by the wall so they must turn to the non-affected side to face out Physical therapists often encourage parents and caregivers of children with torticollis to modify the environment to improve neck movements and position. Modifications may include: * Adding neck supports to the car seat to attain optimal neck alignment * Reducing time spent in a single position * Using toys to encourage the child to look in the direction of limited neck movement * Alternating sides when bottle or breastfeeding * Encouraging prone playtime. Although the Back to Sleep campaign promotes infants sleeping on their backs to avoid
sudden infant death syndrome Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), sometimes known as cot death or crib death, is the sudden unexplained death of a child of less than one year of age. Diagnosis requires that the death remain unexplained even after a thorough autopsy and ...
during sleep, parents should still ensure that their infants spend some waking hours on their stomachs. Environmental Modifications for Torticollis Management: * Placing the baby in a crib with the affected side facing the wall can encourage them to turn their head the other way, promoting better movement.


Manual therapy

A meta-analysis shows physical therapists specializing in manual therapy have developed effective interventions for the management of Congenital Muscular Torticollis (CMT), primarily centered around massage and passive stretching techniques. These interventions are tailored to address the specific needs of pediatric patients, with a focus on stretching the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Various protocols have been proposed, including stretching exercises held for specific durations and repetitions, aimed at increasing blood flow, and promoting muscle relaxation. Additionally, massage maneuvers such as rhythmic muscle mobilization techniques are employed to mobilize cervical structures and induce relaxation. The systematic review highlights the efficacy of manual therapy and passive stretching in improving cervical range of motion (ROM) in children with CMT. Furthermore, the involvement of caregivers in home exercise programs is emphasized as crucial for optimizing treatment outcomes and promoting motor development while preventing secondary complications. A systematic review, looked into the possible benefits of using manipulation techniques to counteract infant torticollis. The study considered the impact of manipulation on an infant's sleep, crying, and restlessness as well. This review did not report any adverse effects of using manipulation techniques. It was shown that using manipulation techniques on their own had little to no statistical differences from a placebo group, immediately. When manipulation techniques were combined with physical therapy, there was a change in symptoms compared to the use of physical therapy alone. When targeting the cervical spine, manipulation techniques were shown to shorten treatment duration in infants with head asymmetries.


Microcurrent therapy

A Korean study has recently introduced an additional treatment called microcurrent therapy that may be effective in treating congenital torticollis. For this therapy to be effective the children should be under three months of age and have torticollis involving the entire sternocleidomastoid muscle with a palpable mass and a muscle thickness over 10 mm. Microcurrent therapy sends minute electrical signals into tissue to restore the normal frequencies in cells. Microcurrent therapy is completely painless and children can only feel the probe from the machine on their skin. Microcurrent therapy is thought to increase ATP and protein synthesis as well as enhance blood flow, reduce muscle spasms and decrease pain along with inflammation. It should be used in addition to regular stretching exercises and ultrasound diathermy. Ultrasound diathermy generates heat deep within body tissues to help with contractures, pain and muscle spasms as well as decrease inflammation. This combination of treatments shows remarkable outcomes in the duration of time children are kept in rehabilitation programs: Micocurrent therapy can cut the length of a rehabilitation program almost in half with a full recovery seen after 2.6 months. About 5–10% of cases fail to respond to stretching and require surgical release of the muscle.


Surgery

Surgical release involves the two heads of the sternocleidomastoid muscle being dissected free. This surgery can be minimally invasive and done laparoscopically. Usually surgery is performed on those who are over 12 months old. The surgery is for those who do not respond to physical therapy or botulinum toxin injection or have a very fibrotic sternocleidomastoid muscle. After surgery the child will be required to wear a soft neck collar (also called a Callot's cast). There will be an intense physiotherapy program for 3–4 months as well as strengthening exercises for the neck muscles.


Other treatments

Other treatments include: * Rest and
analgesics An analgesic drug, also called simply an analgesic, antalgic, pain reliever, or painkiller, is any member of the group of drugs used for pain management. Analgesics are conceptually distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily reduce, and in s ...
for acute cases *
Diazepam Diazepam, sold under the brand name Valium among others, is a medicine of the benzodiazepine family that acts as an anxiolytic. It is used to treat a range of conditions, including anxiety disorder, anxiety, seizures, alcohol withdrawal syndr ...
or other
muscle relaxants A muscle relaxant is a drug that affects skeletal muscle function and decreases the muscle tone. It may be used to alleviate symptoms such as muscle spasms, pain, and hyperreflexia. The term "muscle relaxant" is used to refer to two major therapeu ...
*
Botulinum toxin Botulinum toxin, or botulinum neurotoxin (commonly called botox), is a neurotoxic protein produced by the bacterium ''Clostridium botulinum'' and related species. It prevents the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from axon en ...
* Encouraging active movements for children 6–8 months of age * Ultrasound diathermy


Overview

CMT is a neck problem that babies are born with or develop soon after birth, causing their neck to be stiff and bent in an awkward position. Besides the sternocleidomastoid muscle, other muscles in the neck can also be affected by CMT, leading to problems moving the head and neck normally. The main goal of treating CMT is to make the sternocleidomastoid muscle stronger and more flexible, so the neck can move better and symptoms can improve.


Prognosis

Studies and evidence from clinical practice show that 85–90% of cases of congenital torticollis are resolved with conservative treatment such as physical therapy. Earlier intervention is shown to be more effective and faster than later treatments. More than 98% of infants with torticollis treated before 1 month of age recover by 2.5 months of age. Infants between 1 and 6 months usually require about 6 months of treatment. After that point, therapy will take closer to 9 months, and it is less likely that the torticollis will be fully resolved. It is possible that torticollis will resolve spontaneously, but chance of relapse is possible. For this reason, infants should be reassessed by their physical therapist or other provider 3–12 months after their symptoms have resolved.


Other animals

In veterinary literature usually only the lateral bend of head and neck is termed torticollis, whereas the analogon to the rotatory torticollis in humans is called a head tilt. The most frequently encountered form of torticollis in domestic pets is the head tilt, but occasionally a lateral bend of the head and neck to one side is encountered.


Head tilt

Causes for a head tilt in domestic animals are either diseases of the central or peripheral
vestibular system The vestibular system, in vertebrates, is a sensory system that creates the sense of balance and spatial orientation for the purpose of coordinating motor coordination, movement with balance. Together with the cochlea, a part of the auditory sys ...
or relieving posture due to neck pain. Known causes for head tilt in domestic animals include: * '' Encephalitozoon cuniculi'' infection in rabbits * parasitic infestation by the
nematode The nematodes ( or ; ; ), roundworms or eelworms constitute the phylum Nematoda. Species in the phylum inhabit a broad range of environments. Most species are free-living, feeding on microorganisms, but many are parasitic. Parasitic worms (h ...
(roundworm) ''
Baylisascaris procyonis ''Baylisascaris'' is a genus of nematode, roundworms that infect more than fifty animal species. Life cycle ''Baylisascaris'' eggs are passed in feces and become active within a month. They can remain viable in the environment for years, withs ...
'' in rabbits * Inner ear infection *
Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism is an endocrine disease in which the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones. It can cause a number of symptoms, such as cold intolerance, poor ability to tolerate cold, fatigue, extreme fatigue, muscle aches, co ...
in dogs * Disease of
cranial nerve VIII The vestibulocochlear nerve or auditory vestibular nerve, also known as the eighth cranial nerve, cranial nerve VIII, or simply CN VIII, is a cranial nerve that transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the bra ...
(
vestibulocochlear nerve The vestibulocochlear nerve or auditory vestibular nerve, also known as the eighth cranial nerve, cranial nerve VIII, or simply CN VIII, is a cranial nerve that transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the br ...
) through trauma, infection, inflammation, or
neoplasia A neoplasm () is a type of abnormal and excessive growth of tissue. The process that occurs to form or produce a neoplasm is called neoplasia. The growth of a neoplasm is uncoordinated with that of the normal surrounding tissue, and persists ...
* Disease of the
brain stem The brainstem (or brain stem) is the posterior stalk-like part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. In the human brain the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain is co ...
caused by
stroke Stroke is a medical condition in which poor cerebral circulation, blood flow to a part of the brain causes cell death. There are two main types of stroke: brain ischemia, ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and intracranial hemorrhage, hemor ...
, trauma, or
neoplasia A neoplasm () is a type of abnormal and excessive growth of tissue. The process that occurs to form or produce a neoplasm is called neoplasia. The growth of a neoplasm is uncoordinated with that of the normal surrounding tissue, and persists ...
* Damage to the vestibular organ due to toxicity, inflammation or impaired blood supply * Geriatric vestibular syndrome in dogs


Notes


References


External links


Head Tilt: Causes and Treatment
{{Dorsopathies Ailments of unknown cause Deforming dorsopathies Rabbit diseases Symptoms