This is a timeline of the modern development of

psychiatry Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of deleterious mental disorder, mental conditions. These include matters related to cognition, perceptions, Mood (psychology), mood, emotion, and behavior. ...

. Related information can be found in the

Timeline of psychology This article is a general timeline of psychology. Ancient history – BCE * c. 1550 BCE – The Ebers Papyrus mentioned depression and thought disorders. * c. 600 BCE – Many cities in Greece had temples to Asklepios that provid ...

and Timeline of psychotherapy articles.

Early history of psychiatry

;1550 BCE The

Ebers papyrus The Ebers Papyrus, also known as Papyrus Ebers, is an Egyptian medical papyrus of herbal knowledge dating to (the late Second Intermediate Period or early New Kingdom). Among the oldest and most important medical papyri of Ancient Egypt, it ...

, one of the most important medical papyri of

ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt () was a cradle of civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in Northeast Africa. It emerged from prehistoric Egypt around 3150BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology), when Upper and Lower E ...

, briefly mentioned clinical depression. ;6th century BCE 600 B.C., many cities had temples to

Asklepios Asclepius (; ''Asklēpiós'' ; ) is a hero and god of medicine in ancient Greek religion and mythology. He is the son of Apollo and Coronis, or Arsinoe, or of Apollo alone. Asclepius represents the healing aspect of the medical arts; his ...

known as an Asklepieion that provided cures for psychosomatic illnesses ;4th century BCE Greek physician

Hippocrates Hippocrates of Kos (; ; ), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician and philosopher of the Classical Greece, classical period who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is traditionally referr ...

theorized that physiological abnormalities may be the root of mental disorders. ;280 BCE Greek physician and philosopher

Herophilus Herophilos (; ; 335–280 BC), sometimes Latinised Herophilus, was a Greek physician regarded as one of the earliest anatomists. Born in Chalcedon, he spent the majority of his life in Alexandria. He was the first scientist to systematically p ...

studied the nervous system and distinguished between sensory nerves and motor nerves. ;250 BCE Greek anatomist

Erasistratus Erasistratus (; ; c. 304 – c. 250 BC) was a Greek anatomist and royal physician under Seleucus I Nicator of Syria. Along with fellow physician Herophilus, he founded a school of anatomy in Alexandria, where they carried out anatomical research ...

studied the brain and distinguished between the cerebrum and cerebellum. ;9th century The first

bimaristan A bimaristan (; ), or simply maristan, known in Arabic also as ("house of healing"; in Turkish), is a hospital in the historic Islamic world. Its origins can be traced back to Sassanian Empire prior to the Muslim conquest of Persia. The word ...

was built in

Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...

, followed by several others throughout the

Arab world The Arab world ( '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, comprises a large group of countries, mainly located in West Asia and North Africa. While the majority of people in ...

. By the 13th century, they had become large, complex, and divided into several different specialized units. A number of these hospitals contained wards for patients with mental illness. ;11th century Persian physician

Avicenna Ibn Sina ( – 22 June 1037), commonly known in the West as Avicenna ( ), was a preeminent philosopher and physician of the Muslim world, flourishing during the Islamic Golden Age, serving in the courts of various Iranian peoples, Iranian ...

recognized "physiological psychology" in the treatment of illnesses involving emotions, and developed a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings. ;1247

Bethlehem Royal Hospital Bethlem Royal Hospital, also known as St Mary Bethlehem, Bethlehem Hospital and Bedlam, is a psychiatric hospital in Bromley, London. Its famous history has inspired several horror books, films, and television series, most notably '' Bedlam'', ...

in Bishopsgate outside the wall of London, one of the most famous old psychiatric hospitals was founded as a priory of the Order of St. Mary of Bethlem to collect alms for Crusaders; after the English government secularized it, it started admitting mental patients by 1377 (1403?), becoming known as Bedlam Hospital; in 1547 it was acquired by the City of London, operating until 1948; it is now part of South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust.

Psychiatry in the Enlightenment

;1656 King

Louis XIV LouisXIV (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 September 16381 September 1715), also known as Louis the Great () or the Sun King (), was King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72 years and 110 days is the List of longest-reign ...

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

founded

Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital (, ) is a charitable hospital in the 13th arrondissement of Paris. It is part of the AP-HP Sorbonne University Hospital Group and a teaching hospital of Sorbonne University. History The Salpêtrière ...

in Paris for prostitutes and the mentally defective. ;1672 English physician

Thomas Willis Thomas Willis Fellow of the Royal Society, FRS (27 January 1621 – 11 November 1675) was an English physician who played an important part in the history of anatomy, neurology, and psychiatry, and was a founding member of the Royal Society. L ...

published the anatomical treatise '' De Anima Brutorum'', describing psychology in terms of brain function. 1716 As the first governmental institution dedicated to caring for the mentally ill on German territory, the hospital "Chur-Sachisches Zucht-Waysen und Armen-Haus" was opened in Waldheim in 1716. ;1724 After being plagued with guilt over the

Salem Witch Trials The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in Province of Massachusetts Bay, colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693. More than 200 people were accused. Not everyone wh ...

, influential New England Puritan minister

Cotton Mather Cotton Mather (; February 12, 1663 – February 13, 1728) was a Puritan clergyman and author in colonial New England, who wrote extensively on theological, historical, and scientific subjects. After being educated at Harvard College, he join ...

broke with superstition by advancing physical explanations for mental illnesses over demonic explanations. ;1758 English physician

William Battie William Battie (sometimes spelt Batty;) 1 September 1704 – 13 June 1776) was an English physician who published, in 1758, ''A Treatise on Madness'', a highly influential book on the use of institutionalisation and shock therapy as methods of ...

published '' Treatise on Madness'', calling for treatments to be utilized on rich and poor mental patients alike in asylums. ;1793 French physician

Philippe Pinel Philippe Pinel (; 20 April 1745 – 25 October 1826) was a French physician, precursor of psychiatry and incidentally a zoologist. He was instrumental in the development of a more humane psychological approach to the custody and care of ps ...

was appointed to

Bicêtre Hospital The Bicêtre Hospital is located in Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, a commune in the southern suburbs of Paris, France. It lies 4.5 km (2.8 miles) from the center of Paris. The Bicêtre Hospital was originally planned as a military hospital, with constru ...

in south Paris, ordering chains removed from mental patients, and founding

Moral Treatment Moral treatment was an approach to mental disorder based on humane psychosocial care or moral discipline that emerged in the 18th century and came to the fore for much of the 19th century, deriving partly from psychiatry or psychology and partly ...

. In 1809 he published the first description of dementia praecox (schizophrenia). ;1796 The

York Retreat The Retreat, commonly known as the York Retreat, is a place in England for the treatment of people with mental health needs. Located in Lamel Hill in York, it operates as a not for profit charitable organisation. Opened in 1796, it is famous ...

in England was founded by Quakers, becoming known for humane treatment and serving as a model.

Psychiatry in the 19th century

;1808 German physician

Johann Christian Reil Johann Christian Reil (20 February 1759 – 22 November 1813) was a German physician, physiologist, anatomist, and psychiatrist. He coined the term psychiatry – ''Psychiatrie'' in German – in 1808. Reil was one of five children, and was th ...

coined the term "

". ;1812 American physician

Benjamin Rush Benjamin Rush (April 19, 1813) was an American revolutionary, a Founding Father of the United States and signatory to the U.S. Declaration of Independence, and a civic leader in Philadelphia, where he was a physician, politician, social refor ...

became one of the earliest advocates of humane treatment for the mentally ill with the publication of ''

Medical Inquiries and Observations, upon the Diseases of the Mind Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...

'', the first American textbook on psychiatry. ;1821 The element

lithium Lithium (from , , ) is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. Under standard temperature and pressure, standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the ...

was first isolated from

lithium oxide Lithium oxide (Lithium, Oxygen, O) or lithia is an Inorganic compound, inorganic chemical compound. It is a white or pale yellow solid. Although not specifically important, many materials are assessed on the basis of their Li2O content. For examp ...

and described by English chemist

William Thomas Brande William Thomas Brande FRS FRSE (11 January 178811 February 1866) was an English chemist. Biography Brande was born in Arlington Street, London, England, the youngest son of six children to Augustus Everard Brande an apothecary, originally fro ...

. ;1841 What became the

Royal College of Psychiatrists The Royal College of Psychiatrists is the main professional organisation of psychiatrists in the United Kingdom, and is responsible for representing psychiatrists, for psychiatric research and for providing public information about mental healt ...

, then known as the ''Association of Medical Officers of Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane'', was founded in England, receiving a royal charter in 1926. ;1844 The

Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane The Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane, also known as The Superintendents' Association, was organized in Philadelphia in October, 1844 at a meeting of 13 superintendents, making it the first professiona ...

(AMSAII), the forerunner of the

American Psychiatric Association The American Psychiatric Association (APA) is the main professional organization of psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the largest psychiatric organization in the world. It has more than 39,200 members who are in ...

(APA), was founded in

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...

. ;1845 The

Lunacy Act 1845 The Lunacy Act 1845 or the Lunatics Act 1845 ( 8 & 9 Vict. c. 100) and the County Asylums Act 1845 ( 8 & 9 Vict. c. 126) formed mental health law in England and Wales from 1845 to 1890. The Lunacy Act's most important provision was a change in t ...

and the

County Asylums Act 1845 The Lunacy Act 1845 or the Lunatics Act 1845 ( 8 & 9 Vict. c. 100) and the County Asylums Act 1845 ( 8 & 9 Vict. c. 126) formed mental health law in England and Wales from 1845 to 1890. The Lunacy Act's most important provision was a change in t ...

were passed in England and Wales, leading to the setting up of the Lunacy Commission. ;1851 Dr. Samuel Cartwright, a prominent Louisiana physician and one of the leading authorities in his time on the medical care of people referred to as "negroes", identified two mental disorders peculiar to slaves:

Drapetomania Drapetomania was a proposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. This hypothesis was based on the belief that slavery was such an improvement upo ...

, or the disease causing slaves to run away; Dysaethesia Aethiopica which proposed a theory for the cause of laziness among slaves. Today, both are considered examples of scientific racism. ;1852 French physician Bénédict Augustin Morel published '' Traite des Maladies Mentales'' (2 vols.); the 2nd ed. (1860) coined the term "dementia praecox" (demence precoce) for patients with "stupor" (melancholia). In 1857 he published '' Traité des Dégénérescences'', promoting an understanding of mental illness based upon the theory of Degeneration, which became one of the most influential concepts in psychiatry for the rest of the century. ;1859

Paul Briquet Paul Briquet or Pierre Briquet (12 January 1796 – 25 November 1881) was a French physician and psychologist who advanced the reasoned treatment of disturbed people said to be hysterics. Briquet became a medical doctor in 1824, a professor in 18 ...

published '' Traité clinique et thérapeutique de l’Hystérie''. The first psychiatric clinic in the Russian Empire was organized by Ivan Mikhailovich Balinsky (1827-1902) at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg. ;1892

Daniel Hack Tuke Daniel Hack Tuke (19 April 18275 March 1895) was an English physician and expert on mental illness. Family Tuke came from a long line of Quakers from York who were interested in mental illness and concerned with those afflicted. His great-gra ...

edited the first dictionary of psychiatry. ;1893 German psychiatrist

Emil Kraepelin Emil Wilhelm Georg Magnus Kraepelin (; ; 15 February 1856 – 7 October 1926) was a German psychiatrist. H. J. Eysenck's Encyclopedia of Psychology identifies him as the founder of modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology and psychiatric ...

clinically defined "

dementia praecox Dementia praecox (meaning a "premature dementia" or "precocious madness") is a disused psychiatric diagnosis that originally designated a chronic, deteriorating psychotic disorder characterized by rapid cognitive disintegration, usually beginnin ...

", later reformulated as

schizophrenia Schizophrenia () is a mental disorder characterized variously by hallucinations (typically, Auditory hallucination#Schizophrenia, hearing voices), delusions, thought disorder, disorganized thinking and behavior, and Reduced affect display, f ...

. ;1895

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( ; ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating psychopathology, pathologies seen as originating fro ...

and

Josef Breuer Josef Breuer ( ; ; 15 January 1842 – 20 June 1925) was an Austrian physician who made discoveries in neurophysiology, and whose work during the 1880s with his patient Bertha Pappenheim, known as Anna O., led to the development of the "cathart ...

of Austria published ''

Studies on Hysteria ''Studies on Hysteria'' () is an 1895 book by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, and the physician Josef Breuer. It consists of a joint introductory paper (reprinted from 1893); followed by five individual studies of hysterics – Br ...

'', based on the case of

Bertha Pappenheim Bertha Pappenheim (27 February 1859 – 28 May 1936) was an Austrian-Jewish feminist, a social pioneer, and the founder of the Jewish Women's Association (). Under the pseudonym Anna O., she was also one of Josef Breuer's best-documented pat ...

(known as Anna O.), developing the

Talking Cure ''The Talking Cure'' and ''chimney sweeping'' were terms Bertha Pappenheim, known in case studies by the alias Anna O., used for the verbal therapy given to her by Josef Breuer. They were first published in ''Studies on Hysteria'' (1895). As Erne ...

; Freud and Breuer later split over Freud's obsession with sex. ;1899 The

Kraepelinian dichotomy The Kraepelinian dichotomy is the division of the major endogenous psychoses into the disease concepts of dementia praecox, which was reformulated as schizophrenia by Eugen Bleuler by 1908, and manic-depressive psychosis, which has now been recon ...

between affective psychosis and dementia praecox (schizophrenia) was introduced in the 6th edition of

's famous '' Lehrbuch''. On 4 November

published ''

The Interpretation of Dreams ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' () is an 1899 book by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, in which the author introduces his theory of the unconscious with respect to dream interpretation, and discusses what would later become the t ...

'' (''Die Traumdeutung'').

Early 20th century psychiatry

;1900 Russian neurologist

Vladimir Bekhterev Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev ( rus, Влади́мир Миха́йлович Бе́хтерев, p=ˈbʲextʲɪrʲɪf; 20 January 1857 – 24 December 1927) was a Russian neurologist and the father of objective psychology. He is best known fo ...

discovered the role of the hippocampus in memory. ;1901 German psychiatrist

Alois Alzheimer Alois Alzheimer ( , , ; 14 June 1864 – 19 December 1915) was a German psychiatrist, neuropathologist and colleague of Emil Kraepelin. He is credited with identifying the first published case of "presenile dementia", which Kraepelin later ide ...

identified the first case of what later became known as

Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease and the cause of 60–70% of cases of dementia. The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events. As the disease advances, symptoms can include problems wit ...

published ''

The Psychopathology of Everyday Life ''Psychopathology of Everyday Life'' () is a 1901 work by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. Based on Freud's researches into slips and parapraxes from 1897 onwards, it became perhaps the best-known of all Freud's writings. Editoria ...

''. ;1902 Swiss-born psychiatrist Adolf Meyer became director of the New York State Psychiatric Institute, influencing American psychiatry with his "common sense" approach which included keeping detailed patient records; he coined the term "mental hygiene". ;1905 French psychologists

Alfred Binet Alfred Binet (; ; 8 July 1857 – 18 October 1911), born Alfredo Binetti, was a French psychologist who together with Théodore Simon invented the first practical intelligence test, the Binet–Simon test. In 1904, Binet took part in a comm ...

and

Theodore Simon Theodore may refer to: Places * Theodore, Australian Capital Territory, Australia * Theodore, Queensland, Australia * Theodore, Saskatchewan, Canada * Theodore, Alabama, United States * Theodore Reservoir, in Saskatchewan People * Theodore (gi ...

created the Binet-Simon Scale to assess intellectual ability, marking the start of standardized psychological testing. ;1906 Russian physiologist

Ivan Pavlov Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (, ; 27 February 1936) was a Russian and Soviet experimental neurologist and physiologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs. Pavlov also conducted significant research on ...

published the first

Conditioning Conditioning may refer to: Science, computing, and technology * Air conditioning, the removal of heat from indoor air for thermal comfort ** Automobile air conditioning, air conditioning in a vehicle ** Ice storage air conditioning, air conditio ...

studies. ;1908 The term "

Schizophrenia Schizophrenia () is a mental disorder characterized variously by hallucinations (typically, Auditory hallucination#Schizophrenia, hearing voices), delusions, thought disorder, disorganized thinking and behavior, and Reduced affect display, f ...

" was coined by Swiss psychiatrist Paul Eugen Bleuler. ;1909 In September

visited

Clark University Clark University is a private research university in Worcester, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1887 with a large endowment from its namesake Jonas Gilman Clark, a prominent businessman, Clark was one of the first modern research uni ...

, winning over the U.S. psychiatric establishment. ;1910

founded the

International Psychoanalytical Association The International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) is an association including 12,000 psychoanalysts as members and works with 70 constituent organizations. It was founded in 1910 by Sigmund Freud, from an idea proposed by Sándor Ferenczi. His ...

(IPA), with

Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and psychologist who founded the school of analytical psychology. A prolific author of Carl Jung publications, over 20 books, illustrator, and corr ...

as the first president, and

Otto Rank Otto Rank (; ; né Rosenfeld; 22 April 1884 – 31 October 1939) was an Austrian psychoanalyst, writer, and philosopher. Born in Vienna, he was one of Sigmund Freud's closest colleagues for 20 years, a prolific writer on psychoanalytic themes, ...

as the first secretary.

Boris Sidis Boris Sidis (; October 12, 1867 – October 24, 1923) was an American psychopathologist, psychologist, physician, psychiatrist, and philosopher of education. A pioneering figure in early 20th-century psychology, Sidis founded the New York State ...

opened the Sidis Psychotherapeutic Institute (a private hospital) at Maplewood Farms in Portsmouth, NH for the treatment of nervous patients using the latest scientific methods. ;1911

Alfred Adler Alfred Adler ( ; ; 7 February 1870 – 28 May 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of belonging, relationships within the family, a ...

left Freud's Psychoanalytic Group to form his own school of thought, accusing Freud of overemphasizing sexuality and basing his theory on his own childhood. The

American Psychoanalytic Association The American Psychoanalytic Association (APsA) is an association of psychoanalysts in the United States. APsA serves as a scientific and professional organization with a focus on education, research, and membership development. APsA comprises 34 ...

(APsaA) was founded. ; 1913 The

British Psychoanalytical Society The British Psychoanalytical Society was founded by Ernest Jones as the London Psychoanalytical Society on 30 October 1913. It is one of several organisations in Britain training psychoanalysts. The society has been home to a number of psych ...

was founded by

Ernest Jones Alfred Ernest Jones (1 January 1879 – 11 February 1958) was a Welsh neurologist and psychoanalyst. A lifelong friend and colleague of Sigmund Freud from their first meeting in 1908, he became his official biographer. Jones was the first En ...

, who became Freud's biographer. Citing Freud's inability to acknowledge

religion Religion is a range of social system, social-cultural systems, including designated religious behaviour, behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, religious text, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics in religion, ethics, or ...

and

spirituality The meaning of ''spirituality'' has developed and expanded over time, and various meanings can be found alongside each other. Traditionally, spirituality referred to a religious process of re-formation which "aims to recover the original shape o ...

split and developed his own theories; his new school of thought became known as

Analytical Psychology Analytical psychology (, sometimes translated as analytic psychology; also Jungian analysis) is a term referring to the psychological practices of Carl Jung. It was designed to distinguish it from Freud's psychoanalytic theories as their ...

. Jacob L. Moreno pioneered

Group Psychotherapy Group psychotherapy or group therapy is a form of psychotherapy in which one or more therapists treat a small group of clients together as a group. The term can legitimately refer to any form of psychotherapy when delivered in a group format, i ...

methods in Vienna, which emphasized spontaneity and interaction; they later became known as

Psychodrama Psychodrama is an action method, often used as a psychotherapy, in which clients use spontaneous Adaptation (arts), dramatization, role playing, and dramatic self-presentation to investigate and gain insight into their lives. Developed by Jaco ...

and

Sociometry Sociometry is a quantitative method for measuring Social relation, social relationships. It was developed by psychotherapy, psychotherapist Jacob L. Moreno and Helen Hall Jennings in their studies of the relationship between social structures an ...

. ;1914

published '' On Narcissism: An Introduction''. ;1917

published ''

Introduction to Psychoanalysis ''Introduction to Psychoanalysis'' or ''Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis'' () is a set of lectures given by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, in 1915–1917 (published 1916–1917, in English 1920). The 28 lectures offer an ele ...

'', and ''

Mourning and Melancholia ''Mourning and Melancholia'' () is a 1917 work of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. In this essay, Freud argues that mourning and melancholia are similar but different responses to . In mourning, a person deals with the grief of losi ...

''. ;1920 Swiss psychiatrist

Hermann Rorschach Hermann Rorschach (; 8 November 1884 – 2 April 1922) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. His education in art helped to spur the development of a set of inkblots that were used experimentally to measure various unconscious parts of the ...

developed the

Rorschach Inkblot Test The Rorschach test is a projective psychological test in which subjects' perceptions of inkblots are recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex algorithms, or both. Some psychologists use this test to examine a ...

. ;1921

published ''

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego ''Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego'' () is a 1921 book by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. In this monograph, Freud describes psychological mechanisms at work within mass movements. A ''mass'', according to Freud, is ...

''. ;1923 German pharmacologist

Otto Loewi Otto Loewi (; 3 June 1873 – 25 December 1961) was a Germany, German-born pharmacology, pharmacologist and psychobiologist who discovered the role of acetylcholine as an endogenous neurotransmitter. For this discovery, he was awarded the Nobel ...

and English neuroscientist Sir Henry Dale discovered

Acetylcholine Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic compound that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals (including humans) as a neurotransmitter. Its name is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Par ...

, the first neurotransmitter to be described, winning them the 1936 Nobel Prize. ;1924 German neuropsychiatrist

Hans Berger Hans Berger (21 May 1873 – 1 June 1941) was a German psychiatrist. He is best known as the inventor of electroencephalography (EEG) in 1924, which is a method used for recording the electrical activity of the brain, commonly described in terms ...

discovered human

Electroencephalography Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method to record an electrogram of the spontaneous electrical activity of the brain. The biosignal, bio signals detected by EEG have been shown to represent the postsynaptic potentials of pyramidal neurons in ...

published ''

The Trauma of Birth ''The Trauma of Birth'' () is a 1924 book by the psychoanalyst Otto Rank. It was first published in English translation in 1929. Especially with its focus on the connection between microcosm and macrocosm, it foreshadows Rank's most popular book, ...

'', coining the term "pre-Oedipal", causing Freud to break with him. ;1926 The

Société Psychanalytique de Paris The Paris Psychoanalytical Society (SPP) is the oldest psychoanalytical organisation in France. Founded with Freud’s endorsement in 1926, the S.P.P. is a component member of the International Psychoanalytical Association (I.P.A.) as well as of t ...

was founded with the endorsement of Sigmund Freud; the Nazis closed it in 1940. ;1927 Austrian psychiatrist

Manfred Sakel Manfred Joshua Sakel (June 6, 1900 – December 2, 1957) was an Austrian-American neurophysiologist and psychiatrist, credited with developing insulin shock therapy in 1927. Biography Sakel was born to a Jewish family on June 6, 1900, in Nadvir ...

developed

Insulin Shock Therapy Insulin shock therapy or insulin coma therapy was a form of psychiatric treatment in which patients were repeatedly injected with large doses of insulin in order to produce daily comas over several weeks.Neustatter WL (1948) ''Modern psychiatry ...

as a treatment for psychosis; it was discontinued in the 1970s. Austrian physician

Julius Wagner-Jauregg Julius Wagner-Jauregg (; 7 March 1857 – 27 September 1940) was an Austrian physician, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1927, and is the first psychiatrist to have done so. His Nobel award was "for his discovery of the therape ...

won the

Nobel Prize The Nobel Prizes ( ; ; ) are awards administered by the Nobel Foundation and granted in accordance with the principle of "for the greatest benefit to humankind". The prizes were first awarded in 1901, marking the fifth anniversary of Alfred N ...

for his invention of malarial therapy as a treatment for

general paralysis of the insane General paresis, also known as general paralysis of the insane (GPI), paralytic dementia, or syphilitic paresis is a severe neuropsychiatric disorder, classified as an organic mental disorder, and is caused by late-stage syphilis and the chro ...

(

neurosyphilis Neurosyphilis is the infection of the central nervous system by '' Treponema pallidum'', the bacterium that causes the sexually transmitted infection syphilis. In the era of modern antibiotics, the majority of neurosyphilis cases have been report ...

). He first initiated the treatment in 1917. ;1928 Indian Association for Mental Hygiene established. ;1933 Hungarian psychiatrist

Sándor Ferenczi Sándor Ferenczi (; 7 July 1873 – 22 May 1933) was a Hungarian Psychoanalysis, psychoanalyst, a key theorist of the psychoanalytic school and a close associate of Sigmund Freud. Biography Born Sándor Fraenkel to Baruch Fränkel and Rosa ...

published a paper claiming that patient accounts of childhood sexual abuse are true, providing a psychological explanation, causing Freud to break with him. ;1935 The Indian division of the

Royal Medico-Psychological Association The Royal College of Psychiatrists is the main professional organisation of psychiatrists in the United Kingdom, and is responsible for representing psychiatrists, for psychiatric research and for providing public information about mental healt ...

was formed due to the efforts of Dr.

Banarasi Das Banarasi Das, popularly known as Babu Banarasi Das (8 July 1912 – 3 August 1985) was an Indian politician and Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. He was from Janata Party. Career Banarasi Das was a freedom fighter. He went to jail many times du ...

. ;1938 Italian neurologist

Ugo Cerletti Ugo Cerletti (26 September 1877 – 25 July 1963) was an Italian neurology, neurologist who discovered the method of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) used in psychiatry. Electroconvulsive therapy is a therapy in which electric current is used to pro ...

and Italian psychiatrist Dr. Lucio Bini discovered

Electroconvulsive Therapy Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a psychiatry, psychiatric treatment that causes a generalized seizure by passing electrical current through the brain. ECT is often used as an intervention for mental disorders when other treatments are inadequ ...

. ;1942 Swiss psychiatrist

Ludwig Binswanger Ludwig Binswanger (; ; 13 April 1881 – 5 February 1966) was a Swiss people, Swiss psychiatrist and pioneer in the field of existential psychology. His parents were Robert Johann Binswanger (1850–1910) and Bertha Hasenclever (1847–1896). ...

founded

Existential Therapy Existential therapy is a form of psychotherapy based on the model of human nature and experience developed by the existential tradition of European philosophy. It focuses on the psychological experience revolving around universal human truths of ...

. The

Controversial Discussions The controversial discussions were a protracted series of meetings of the British Psychoanalytical Society which took place between October 1942 and February 1944 between the Viennese school and the supporters of Melanie Klein. They led to a tripar ...

between Sigmund Freud's daughter

Anna Freud Anna Freud CBE ( ; ; 3 December 1895 – 9 October 1982) was a British psychoanalyst of Austrian Jewish descent. She was born in Vienna, the sixth and youngest child of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays. She followed the path of her father a ...

and

Melanie Klein Melanie Klein (; ; Reizes; 30 March 1882 – 22 September 1960) was an Austrian-British author and psychoanalysis, psychoanalyst known for her work in child analysis. She was the primary figure in the development of object relations theory. Kl ...

, founder of

Object Relations Theory Object relations theory is a school of thought in psychoanalytic theory and psychoanalysis centered around theories of stages of ego development. Its concerns include the relation of the psyche to others in childhood and the exploration of re ...

caused the

to permanently split into three camps. ;1944

Ritalin Methylphenidate, sold under the brand names Ritalin ( ) and Concerta ( ) among others, is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. It may be taken by mouth ...

(Methylphenidate) was synthesized. ;1946

Mary Jane Ward Mary Jane Ward (August 27, 1905 in Fairmount, Indiana—February 17, 1981, in Tucson, Arizona) was an American novelist whose semi-autobiographical book ''The Snake Pit'' was made into an Oscar-winning film. Works Ward authored eight books dur ...

published the novel ''

The Snake Pit ''The Snake Pit'' is a 1948 American psychological drama film directed by Anatole Litvak and starring Olivia de Havilland, Mark Stevens, Leo Genn, Celeste Holm, Beulah Bondi, and Lee Patrick. Based on Mary Jane Ward's 1946 semi-autobiog ...

'', which was filmed in 1948, causing reforms in U.S. state psychiatric hospitals. ;1947

Indian Psychiatric Society The Indian Psychiatric Society (IPS) is the oldest professional association of psychiatrists in India. Founded during the 34th Indian Science Congress, IPS replaced the Indian division of the Royal Medico-Psychological Association. Dr Savita Mal ...

established. ;1948

Lithium carbonate Lithium carbonate is an inorganic compound, the lithium salt of carbonic acid with the chemical formula, formula . This white Salt (chemistry), salt is widely used in processing metal oxides. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, Wor ...

's ability to stabilize mood highs and lows in bipolar mood disorder (manic depression) was demonstrated by Australian psychiatrist

John Cade John Frederick Joseph Cade AO (18 January 1912 – 16 November 1980) was an Australian psychiatrist who in 1948 discovered the effects of lithium carbonate as a mood stabilizer in the treatment of bipolar disorder, then known as manic depressi ...

, becoming the first effective medicine for the treatment of mental illness. ;1949 Portuguese neurologist Egas Moniz won the Nobel Prize for his work on

Lobotomy A lobotomy () or leucotomy is a discredited form of Neurosurgery, neurosurgical treatment for mental disorder, psychiatric disorder or neurological disorder (e.g. epilepsy, Depression in childhood and adolescence, depression) that involves sev ...

The era of the new psychopharmacology

;1950 The

World Psychiatric Association The World Psychiatric Association (WPA) is an international Umbrella organization, umbrella organisation of psychiatric societies. Objectives and goals Originally created to produce world psychiatric congresses, it has evolved to hold regional ...

was founded. ;1952 The first published clinical trial of

chlorpromazine Chlorpromazine (CPZ), marketed under the brand names Thorazine and Largactil among others, is an antipsychotic medication. It is primarily used to treat psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. Other uses include the treatment of bipolar d ...

which is the first

antipsychotic Antipsychotics, previously known as neuroleptics and major tranquilizers, are a class of Psychiatric medication, psychotropic medication primarily used to manage psychosis (including delusions, hallucinations, paranoia or disordered thought), p ...

(invented by

Henri Laborit Henri Laborit (21 November 1914 – 18 May 1995) was a French surgeon, neurobiologist, writer and philosopher. In 1952, Laborit was instrumental in the development of the drug chlorpromazine, published his findings, and convinced three psychiatri ...

Jean Delay Jean Delay (14 November 1907, Bayonne – 29 May 1987, Paris) was a French psychiatrist, neurologist, writer, and a member of the Académie française (Chair 17). His assistant Pierre Deniker conducted a test of chlorpromazine on the male me ...

and

Pierre Deniker Pierre Deniker (16 February 1917, in Paris – 17 August 1998) was involved, jointly with Jean Delay and J. M. Harl, in the introduction of chlorpromazine (Thorazine), the first antipsychotic used in the treatment of schizophrenia, in the 1950s.K ...

) was conducted at

Sainte-Anne Hospital Center The Sainte-Anne Hospital Center (French: ''Centre hospitalier Sainte-Anne'') is a hospital located in the 14th arrondissement of Paris, specializing in psychiatry, neurology, neurosurgery, neuroimaging and addiction. With its creation dating to ...

in Paris. Known as Largactil in Europe, it was brought to Montreal by Heinz Lehman and named Thorazine. Chlorpromazine-3D-balls

;1952 The

(APA) published the first

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (''DSM''; latest edition: ''DSM-5-TR'', published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a com ...

(DSM); it was revised in 1968, 1980/7, 1994, 2000 and 2013. ;1952 The first

monoamine oxidase inhibitor Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are a drug class, class of drugs that inhibit the activity of one or both monoamine oxidase enzymes: monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) and monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B). They are best known as effective antidepressa ...

(MAOI) antidepressant

iproniazid Iproniazid (Marsilid, Rivivol, Euphozid, Iprazid, Ipronid, Ipronin) is a non-selective, irreversible inhibition, irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) of the hydrazine (antidepressant), hydrazine class. It is a xenobiotic that was origi ...

was discovered. ;1953 Russian-born physiologist

Nathaniel Kleitman Nathaniel Kleitman (April 26, 1895 – August 13, 1999) was an American physiologist and sleep researcher who served as Professor Emeritus in Physiology at the University of Chicago. He is recognized as the father of modern sleep research, a ...

of the U. of Chicago discovered

Rapid eye movement sleep Rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep or REMS) is a unique phase of sleep in mammals (including humans) and birds, characterized by random rapid movement of the eyes, accompanied by low muscle tone throughout the body, and the propensity of the s ...

(REM), founding modern sleep research. French psychiatrist

Jacques Lacan Jacques Marie Émile Lacan (, ; ; 13 April 1901 – 9 September 1981) was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist. Described as "the most controversial psycho-analyst since Sigmund Freud, Freud", Lacan gave The Seminars of Jacques Lacan, year ...

broke with the IPA over his variable-length sessions, and founded the

Société Française de Psychanalyse The Société Française de Psychanalyse (SFP; English: "French Society of Psychoanalysis") was a French psychoanalytic professional body formed in 1953, in a split from the main body of French psychoanalysts, the Société Parisienne de Psychanal ...

. ;1954

James Olds James Olds (May 30, 1922 – August 21, 1976) was an American psychologist who co-discovered the pleasure center of the brain with Peter Milner while he was a postdoctoral fellow at McGill University in 1954. He is considered to be one of the fo ...

and Peter Milner of McGill University discovered the brain reward system.

Roger Sperry Roger Wolcott Sperry (August 20, 1913 – April 17, 1994) was an American neuropsychologist, neurobiologist, cognitive neuroscientist, and Nobel laureate who, together with David H. Hubel and Torsten Nils Wiesel, won the 1981 Nobel Prize in M ...

of Caltech began

split-brain Split-brain or callosal syndrome is a type of disconnection syndrome when the corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is severed to some degree. It is an association of symptoms produced by disruption of, or interference w ...

research. On the recommendation of the Bhore Committee in 1946, the All India Institute of Mental Health was founded, becoming the

National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences The National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro-Sciences (NIMHANS) is a medical institution in Bengaluru, India. NIMHANS serves as the apex centre for mental health education and neuroscience research in the country. It is an Institute of N ...

(NIMHANS) in 1974 at Bangalore. ;1956

Gregory Bateson Gregory Bateson (9 May 1904 – 4 July 1980) was an English anthropology, anthropologist, social sciences, social scientist, linguistics, linguist, visual anthropology, visual anthropologist, semiotics, semiotician, and cybernetics, cybernetici ...

John Weakland John H. Weakland (8 January 1919 – 18 July 1995) was one of the founders of brief and family psychotherapy. At the time of his death, he was a senior research fellow at the Mental Research Institute (MRI) in Palo Alto, California, co-director o ...

Donald deAvila Jackson Donald deAvila Jackson, M.D. (January 2, 1920 – January 29, 1968) was an American psychiatrist best known for his pioneering work in family therapy. From 1947 to 1951, he studied under Harry Stack Sullivan. From 1953 to 1962, he worked with Gr ...

, and

Jay Haley Jay Douglas Haley (July 19, 1923 – February 13, 2007) was one of the founding figures of Problem-solving brief therapy and family therapy in general and of the strategic model of psychotherapy, and he was one of the more accomplished teachers, ...

proposed the double bind theory of schizophrenia, which regards it as stemming from situations where a person receives different or contradictory messages. The English translation of ''

The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud ''The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud'' is a complete edition of the works of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. It was translated from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey, in ...

'' was published in 24 volumes (1956–74). ;1957

Arvid Carlsson Arvid Carlsson (25 January 1923 – 29 June 2018) was a Swedish neuropharmacologist who is best known for his work with the neurotransmitter dopamine and its effects in Parkinson's disease. For his work on dopamine, Carlsson was awarded the Nob ...

demonstrated that

dopamine Dopamine (DA, a contraction of 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine) is a neuromodulatory molecule that plays several important roles in cells. It is an organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families. It is an amine synthesized ...

is a neurotransmitter in the brain. The first

tricyclic antidepressant Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are a class of medications that are used primarily as antidepressants. TCAs were discovered in the early 1950s and were marketed later in the decade. They are named after their chemical structure, which contains ...

(TCA),

imipramine Imipramine, sold under the brand name Tofranil, among others, is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) mainly used in the treatment of depression. It is also effective in treating anxiety and panic disorder. Imipramine is taken by mouth. Common s ...

was discovered. ;1958

Aaron B. Lerner Aaron Bunsen Lerner (September 21, 1920 – February 3, 2007) was an American physician, researcher and professor who is known for the discovery of melatonin. He was the first chair of the Department of Dermatology at Yale University. Life and car ...

et al. of Yale University isolated the hormone

melatonin Melatonin, an indoleamine, is a natural compound produced by various organisms, including bacteria and eukaryotes. Its discovery in 1958 by Aaron B. Lerner and colleagues stemmed from the isolation of a substance from the pineal gland of cow ...

, which was found to regulate the circadian rhythm. ;1960s

Aaron T. Beck Aaron Temkin Beck (July 18, 1921November 1, 2021) was an American psychiatrist who was a professor in the department of psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania.

developed

cognitive therapy Cognitive therapy (CT) is a psychotherapeutic approach developed by American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck, which aims to change unhelpful or inaccurate thought patterns. CT is one therapeutic approach within the larger group of cognitive behavio ...

. ;1960 The first

benzodiazepine Benzodiazepines (BZD, BDZ, BZs), colloquially known as "benzos", are a class of central nervous system (CNS) depressant, depressant drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. They are prescribed t ...

chlordiazepoxide Chlordiazepoxide hydrochloride, sold under the brand name Librium is a sedative and hypnotic medication of the benzodiazepine class. It is used to treat anxiety, insomnia and symptoms of withdrawal from alcohol, benzodiazepines, and other drug ...

, under the trade name ''Librium'' was introduced. ;1961 Professor of psychiatry

Thomas Szasz Thomas Stephen Szasz ( ; ; 15 April 1920 – 8 September 2012) was a Hungarian-American academic and psychiatrist. He served for most of his career as professor of psychiatry at the State University of New York Upstate Medical University. A dis ...

publishes

The Myth of Mental Illness ''The Myth of Mental Illness: Foundations of a Theory of Personal Conduct'' is a 1961 book by the psychiatrist Thomas Szasz, in which the author criticizes psychiatry and argues against the concept of mental illness. It received much publicity, a ...

. ;1963 United States president

John F. Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), also known as JFK, was the 35th president of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the first Roman Catholic and youngest person elected p ...

introduced legislation delegating the

National Institute of Mental Health The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) is one of 27 institutes and centers that make up the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The NIH, in turn, is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is the primar ...

to administer Community Mental Health Centers for those being discharged from state psychiatric hospitals.

Medard Boss Medard Boss (October 4, 1903, St. Gallen – December 21, 1990, Zollikon) was a Swiss psychoanalytic psychiatrist who developed a form of psychotherapy known as Daseinsanalysis, which united the psychotherapeutic practice of psychoanalysis with ...

founded

Daseinsanalysis Daseinsanalysis (German: ''Daseinsanalyse)'' is an existentialist approach to psychoanalysis. It was first developed by Ludwig Binswanger in the 1920s under the concept of "phenomenological anthropology". After the publication of "Basic Forms and P ...

. ;1964

Ronald David Laing Ronald David Laing (7 October 1927 – 23 August 1989), usually cited as R. D. Laing, was a Scottish psychiatrist who wrote extensively on mental illnessin particular, psychosis and schizophrenia. Laing's views on the causes and treatment o ...

published '' Sanity, Madness and the Family'', claiming that the roots of schizophrenia lie in the "family nexus", where people play dark games with each other. ;1970 The

U.S. Food and Drug Administration The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a federal agency of the Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food ...

(FDA) approved

for acute mania. The United States U.S. Controlled Substances Act was passed, putting LSD, DMT, Psilocybin, Mescaline, and Marijuana on Schedule I (no accepted medical use). ;1972 American psychologist

David Rosenhan David L. Rosenhan (; November 22, 1929 – February 6, 2012) was an American psychologist. He is known best for the Rosenhan experiment, a study challenging the validity of psychiatry diagnoses. Biography Rosenhan received his Bachelor of Arts d ...

published the

Rosenhan experiment The Rosenhan experiment or Thud experiment was an experiment regarding the validity of psychiatric diagnosis. For the experiment, participants submitted themselves for evaluation at various psychiatric institutions and feigned hallucinations in or ...

, a study challenging the validity of psychiatric diagnoses. ;1973 The

declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder. ;1975 The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of the American Psychiatric Association was officially founded. A primary function of the organization was to advocate to the APA on LGBT mental health issues. The caucus changed its name to the

Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrists The Association of LGBTQ Psychiatrists, originally the Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrists (AGLP), is an organization that educates and advocates on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBTQ) mental health issues. History The organi ...

in 1985.Bayer (1987), p. 162
AGLP History
;1977 The

ICD-9 The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) is a globally used medical classification that is used in epidemiology, health management and clinical diagnosis. The ICD is maintained by the World Health Organization (WHO), which is the direc ...

was published by the

WHO The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations which coordinates responses to international public health issues and emergencies. It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and has 6 regional offices and 15 ...

. Andrey Lichko published '' Psychopathies and Character Accentuations in Adolescents''.Lichko A.E. Психопатии и акцентуации характера у подростков sikhopatii i aktsentuatsii kharaktera u podrostkov Moscow 1977; Leningrad 1983 (second edition, enlarged & revised) ;1980 Transgender people were officially classified by the

as having "

gender identity disorder Gender dysphoria (GD) is the distress a person experiences due to inconsistency between their gender identitytheir personal sense of their own genderand their sex assignment, sex assigned at birth. The term replaced the previous diagnostic lab ...

." ;1982 The National Mental Health Programme (NMHP) was launched in India. ;1983 The

European Psychiatric Association The European Psychiatric Association (EPA) is the main association representing psychiatry in Europe. History The EPA was founded in October 1983 as the Association of European Psychiatrists (AEP), at the University of Strasbourg, by twelve Frenc ...

was founded. ;1987 The Indian Mental Health Act was drafted by the parliament, but it came into effect in all the states andunion territories of India in April 1993. This act replaced the Indian Lunacy Act of 1912, which had earlier replaced the Indian Lunatic Asylum act of 1858. ;1988

Fluoxetine Fluoxetine, sold under the brand name Prozac, among others, is an Antidepressant, antidepressant medication of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class used for the treatment of major depressive disorder, Anxiety disorder, anx ...

(trade name ''Prozac''), the first

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of drugs that are typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and other psychological conditions. SSRIs primarily work by blo ...

(SSRI) antidepressant was released, quickly becoming the most prescribed. The

American Neuropsychiatric Association The American Neuropsychiatric Association (ANPA) is a non-profit organization of professionals in neuropsychiatry, behavioral neurology and the clinical neurosciences, with over 700 members from around the world. Established in 1988, its mission ...

was founded. ;1990 Use of the " blood-oxygen-level dependent" (BOLD) in

MRI Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to generate pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes inside the body. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and rad ...

first discovered by Dr.

Seiji Ogawa Seiji Ogawa (小川誠二 ''Ogawa Seiji'', born January 19, 1934) is a Japanese biophysicist and neuroscientist known for discovering the technique that underlies Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). He is regarded as the father of moder ...

;1991

Kenneth Kwong Kenneth Kin Man Kwong is a Hong Kong-born American nuclear physicist. He is a pioneer in human brain imaging. He received his bachelor's degree in Political Science in 1972 from the University of California, Berkeley. He went on to receive his P ...

successfully applied BOLD to image human brain activities with MRI, and published the findings in 1992. ;1994 The appetite-suppressing hormone

leptin Leptin (from Ancient Greek, Greek λεπτός ''leptos'', "thin" or "light" or "small"), also known as obese protein, is a protein hormone predominantly made by adipocytes (cells of adipose tissue). Its primary role is likely to regulate long ...

was discovered. ;1996 U.S. President

Bill Clinton William Jefferson Clinton (né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician and lawyer who was the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party, ...

signed the

Mental Health Parity Act The Mental Health Parity Act (MHPA) is legislation signed into United States law on September 26, 1996 that requires annual or lifetime dollar limits on mental health benefits to be no lower than any such dollar limits for medical and surgical ...

, requiring psychiatric conditions to be considered equal to any other medical or surgical illness by health insurance providers; in 2008 President

George W. Bush George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician and businessman who was the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. A member of the Bush family and the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party, he i ...

signed an amended version.

21st century

;2000 The No Free Lunch Organization was founded by Dr. Bob Goodman, an internist from New York. ;2001 Pakistan Mental Health Act 2001: Since Pakistan’s founding in 1947, the country had relied on the outdated Lunacy Act from 1912. Efforts to reform it began in 1992, but it was not until 2001 that this act was replaced by the Mental Health Ordinance 2001. The

European Brain Council The European Brain Council (EBC) is a coordinating international health organization founded in 2002. It comprises major organisations in the field of brain research and brain disorders in Europe, and thus its structure involves a network of pa ...

was founded in Brussels. The term for schizophrenia in Japan was changed from Seishin-Bunretsu-Byō 精神分裂病 (mind-split-disease) to Tōgō-shitchō-shō 統合失調症 (integration disorder) to reduce stigma. The new name was inspired by the biopsychosocial model; it increased the percentage of patients who were informed of the diagnosis from 37% to 70% over three years. ;2012 In 2009 America's professional association of endocrinologists established best practices for transgender children that included prescribing puberty-suppressing drugs to preteens followed by hormone therapy beginning at about age 16, and in 2012 the

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit professional association in the United States dedicated to facilitating psychiatric care for children and adolescents. The Academy is headquartered in Wash ...

echoed these recommendations. The

issued official position statements supporting the care and civil rights of transgender and gender non-conforming individuals. ;2013

DSM-5 The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition'' (DSM-5), is the 2013 update to the '' Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'', the taxonomic and diagnostic tool published by the American Psychiat ...

was published by the

. Among other things, it eliminated the term "

," which was considered stigmatizing, instead referring to "gender dysphoria," which focuses attention only on those who feel distressed by their gender identity.

Early history of psychiatry

Psychiatry in the Enlightenment

Psychiatry in the 19th century

Early 20th century psychiatry

The era of the new psychopharmacology

21st century

Notes and references

Further reading