The Tian Shan, also known as the Tengri Tagh or Tengir-Too, meaning the "Mountains of God/Heaven", is a large system of

mountain range A mountain range or hill range is a series of mountains or hills arranged in a line and connected by high ground. A mountain system or mountain belt is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure, and alignment that have aris ...

s in

Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...

. The highest peak is Jengish Chokusu at high and located in Kyrgyzstan. Its lowest point is at the Turpan Depression, which is below sea level. The Tian Shan is sacred in Tengrism. Its second-highest peak is known as Khan Tengri, which can be translated as "Lord of the Spirits". At the 2013 Conference on World Heritage, the eastern portion of Tian Shan in western China's Xinjiang Region was listed as a World Heritage Site. The western portion in Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan was then listed in 2016.

Geography

Tian Shan with the ancient Silk Road The Tian Shan range is located north and west of the

Taklamakan Desert The Taklamakan Desert ( ) is a desert in northwest China's Xinjiang region. Located inside the Tarim Basin in Southern Xinjiang, it is bounded by the Kunlun Mountains to the south, the Pamir Mountains to the west, the Tian Shan range to the ...

and directly north of the

Tarim Basin The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Xinjiang, Northwestern China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, Ch ...

. It straddles the border regions of

Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a landlocked country primarily in Central Asia, with a European Kazakhstan, small portion in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the Kazakhstan–Russia border, north and west, China to th ...

Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan, officially the Kyrgyz Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Asia lying in the Tian Shan and Pamir Mountains, Pamir mountain ranges. Bishkek is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Kyrgyzstan, largest city. Kyrgyz ...

Uzbekistan , image_flag = Flag of Uzbekistan.svg , image_coat = Emblem of Uzbekistan.svg , symbol_type = Emblem of Uzbekistan, Emblem , national_anthem = "State Anthem of Uzbekistan, State Anthem of the Republ ...

and

Xinjiang Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...

in Northwest China. To the south, it connects with the

Pamir Mountains The Pamir Mountains are a Mountain range, range of mountains between Central Asia and South Asia. They are located at a junction with other notable mountains, namely the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun Mountains, Kunlun, Hindu Kush and the Himalaya ...

, while to north and east, it meets the

Altai Mountains The Altai Mountains (), also spelled Altay Mountains, are a mountain range in Central Asia, Central and East Asia, where Russia, China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan converge, and where the rivers Irtysh and Ob River, Ob have their headwaters. The ...

Mongolia Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south and southeast. It covers an area of , with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world's List of countries and dependencies by po ...

. The Tian Shan range extends eastwards for approximately 2,900 kilometers from

Tashkent Tashkent (), also known as Toshkent, is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Uzbekistan, largest city of Uzbekistan. It is the most populous city in Central Asia, with a population of more than 3 million people as of April 1, 2024. I ...

, Uzbekistan. It forms part of the Himalayan orogenic belt, resulting from the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates during the

Cenozoic The Cenozoic Era ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterized by the dominance of mammals, insects, birds and angiosperms (flowering plants). It is the latest of three g ...

era. The range encompasses the Bogda Shan in the east, as defined by both Western and Chinese cartography. The Tian Shan's highest peak is Jengish Chokusu (also known as Victory Peak), shared by Kyrgyzstan and China. At high, it is the highest point in Kyrgyzstan. The Tian Shan's second highest peak, Khan Tengri (King Heaven), straddles the

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

tripoint and at , is the highest point of Kazakhstan. Mountaineers class these as the two northernmost peaks surpassing in the world. The Torugart Pass, at , marks the border between Kyrgyzstan and

. The lower-altitude, forested Alatau ranges in the northern Tian Shan is home to Turkic-speaking pastoral tribes. The Tian Shan is separated from the Tibetan Plateau by the Taklimakan Desert and the

to the south. The

Syr Darya The Syr Darya ( ),; ; ; ; ; /. historically known as the Jaxartes ( , ), is a river in Central Asia. The name, which is Persian language, Persian, literally means ''Syr Sea'' or ''Syr River''. It originates in the Tian Shan, Tian Shan Mountain ...

, Ili River and Tarim River that originate in the Tian Shan. The Aksu Canyon is a prominent feature in the mountain range's northwestern section. Continuous

permafrost Permafrost () is soil or underwater sediment which continuously remains below for two years or more; the oldest permafrost has been continuously frozen for around 700,000 years. Whilst the shallowest permafrost has a vertical extent of below ...

typically forms in the Tian Shan at elevations above 3,500-3,700 meters. Discontinuous permafrost can be found as low as 2,000 meters in specific locations influenced by unique topographical and climatic conditions, though it generally occurs between 2,700-3,300 meters altitude. The Tian Shan's glaciers are rapidly receding, losing 27% or 5.4 billion tons of ice since 1961— nearly four times the global average of 7%. By 2050, half of the remaining ice is projected to disappear. Russian explorer Peter Semenov was one of the first Europeans to extensively document the Tian Shan in the 1850s, ultimately changing his family name to refer to the mountains.

Ranges

The Tian Shan have a number of named ranges which are often mentioned separately (all distances are approximate): * Barkol Tagh (Barkol Shan), * Bei Shan, * Bogda Shan, * Borohoro Shan, * Irenchabirga, * Qarliq Tagh (Qarlik Shan, Karkik Tagh, Karlik Shan, Harlik Shan), * Kyrgyz Ala-Too Range (Kyrgyz Alatau, Kyrgyz Range, Alexander Range), * Kakshaal Too (Kokschaal Tau, Qaqşaal Too), * Küngöy Ala-Too Range (Kungej-Alatau, Kungey Alatau, Kungoy Ala-Too, Küngei Alataw. Kungey Alataw), * Ketmen Ridge * Kuruk Tagh (Quruq Tagh, Kuruktagh, Kuluketage, Kuruktage Shan), * Talas Alatau (Talas Alatow, Talas Ala-Too), * Suusamyr Too * Terskey Alatoo (Terskey Alatau, Terskej Alatau, Teskey Alatoo) and * Trans-Ili Alatau (Ile Alatau, Ile Alatauy, Zailiisky Alatau, Transili Alatau). In China the Tian Shan starts from about east of

Ürümqi Ürümqi, , is the capital of the Xinjiang, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwestern China. With a census population of 4 million in 2020, Ürümqi is the second-largest city in China's northwestern interior after Xi'an, also the ...

, north of Kumul City (Hami) with the Qarlik Tagh and the Barkol Mountains. Then the Bogda Shan (god mountains) run from east of Ürümqi. Then there is a low area between Ürümqi and the Turfan Depression. The Borohoro Mountains start just south of

and run west-northwest separating Dzungaria from the Ili River basin. Their north end abuts on the

Dzungarian Alatau The Dzungarian Alatau (, ''Züüngaryn Alatau''; ; , ''Jetısu Alatauy''; , ''Dzhungarskiy Alatau'') is a mountain range that lies on the boundary of the Dzungaria region of China and the Jetisu, Zhetysu region of Kazakhstan. It has a length of ...

which runs east northeast along Sino-Kazakh border. They start east of Taldykorgan in Kazakhstan and end at the

Dzungarian Gate The Dzungarian Gate, also known as the Altai Gap, is a geographically and historically significant mountain pass between Central Asia and China. It has been described as the "one and only gateway in the mountain-wall which stretches from China t ...

. The

in the north, the Borohoro Mountains in the middle and the Ketmen Ridge in the south make a reversed Z or S, the northeast enclosing part of Dzungaria and the southwest enclosing the upper Ili valley. Kyrgyzstan Topography

the mainline of the Tian Shan continues as Narat Range from the base of the Borohoros west to the point where China, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan meet. Here is the highest part of the range – the Central Tian Shan, with Peak Pobeda ( Kakshaal Too range) and Khan Tengri. West of this, the Tian Shan split into an 'eye', with Issyk Kul Lake in its center. The south side of the lake is the Terskey Alatau and the north side the Kyungey Ala-Too (shady and sunny Ala-Too). North of the Kyungey Ala-Too and parallel to it is the Trans-Ili Alatau in Kazakhstan just south of

Almaty Almaty, formerly Alma-Ata, is the List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan, largest city in Kazakhstan, with a population exceeding two million residents within its metropolitan area. Located in the foothills of the Trans-Ili Alatau mountains ...

. West of the eye, the range continues as the Kyrgyz Ala-Too, separating Chüy Region from Naryn Region of Kyrgyzstan and then Kazakhstan from the upper valley of the river Talas, the south side of which is the Talas Ala-Too Range ('Ala-too' is a Kyrgyz spelling, while ‘Alatau’ is a Kazakh spelling). At the east end of the Talas Alatau the Suusamyr Too range runs southeast enclosing the Suusamyr Valley or plateau. As for the area south of the Fergana Valley there is an group of mountains that curves west-southwest from south of Issyk Kul Lake separating the

from the Fergana Valley. The Fergana Range runs northeast towards the Talas Ala-Too and separates the upper Naryn basin from Fergana proper. The southern side of these mountains merge into the Pamirs in Tajikistan ( Alay Mountains and Trans-Alay Range). West of this is the Turkestan Range, which continues almost to Samarkand.

Ice Age

The Tian Shan plateau, stretching 100 to 120 km wide, is located on the northern margin of the

Tarim basin The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Xinjiang, Northwestern China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, Ch ...

between the Kokshaal-Tau mountain chain to the south and the Terskey Alatau mountain chain to the north. The Kokshaal-Tau extends for 570 km from Pik Dankowa in the west to Pik Pobeda in the east-northeast. This mountain chain, along with the parallel Terskey Alatau and the Tian Shan plateau in between, were covered by connected ice-stream-networks and a plateau glacier during glacial times. The only remaining interglacial remnant of this glaciation is the 61 km long South Inylschek glacier. The outlet glacier tongues of the plateau glacier flowed northward down to Lake Issyk Kul, calving in this 160 km long lake. Similarly, strong glaciation was present in the high mountain area of the Kungey Alatau, which stretches for 230 km north of Issyk Kul and connects to the mountain foreland near Alma Ata. The glacial glaciers from the Kungey Alatau also calved into Lake Issyk Kul, with the Ak-Sai valley glacier developing a mountain foreland glacier. The Chon-Kemin valley was glaciated up to its inflow into the Chu valley. Altogether, the glacial Tian Shan glaciation occupied an area of approximately 118,000 square kilometers. The glacier snowline was about 1200m lower during the last ice age than it is today. This would result in a depression of the average annual temperature of 7.2 to 8.4 °C for the

Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred to as the Last Glacial Coldest Period, was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period where ice sheets were at their greatest extent between 26,000 and 20,000 years ago. Ice sheets covered m ...

compared with today, assuming a comparable precipitation ratio.

Ecology

The Tian Shan holds important forests of Schrenk's spruce ('' Picea schrenkiana'') at altitudes of over ; the lower slopes have unique natural forests of wild

walnut A walnut is the edible seed of any tree of the genus '' Juglans'' (family Juglandaceae), particularly the Persian or English walnut, '' Juglans regia''. They are accessory fruit because the outer covering of the fruit is technically an i ...

s and

apple An apple is a round, edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus'' spp.). Fruit trees of the orchard or domestic apple (''Malus domestica''), the most widely grown in the genus, are agriculture, cultivated worldwide. The tree originated ...

s. The Tian Shan in its immediate geological past was kept from glaciation due to the "protecting" warm influence of the

Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia (continent), ...

monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in Atmosphere of Earth, atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annu ...

climate. This defined its ecological features which could sustain its distinctive ecosphere. The mountains were subjected to constant geological changes with constantly evolving drainage systems which affected the patterns of vegetation, as well as exposing fertile soil for newly emerging seedlings to thrive in.

Tulip Tulips are spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes in the ''Tulipa'' genus. Their flowers are usually large, showy, and brightly coloured, generally red, orange, pink, yellow, or white. They often have a different colour ...

s originated in the Tian Shan Mountains. The plant then made its way to Turkey via the

Silk Road The Silk Road was a network of Asian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over , it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between the ...

and became a symbol of the

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...

. Ancestors of important crop vegetation were established and thrived in the area, among them: apricots ('' Prunus armeniaca''), pears ('' Pyrus'' spp.), pomegranates ('' Punica granatum''), figs ('' Ficus''), cherries ('' Prunus avium'') and mulberries ('' Morus''). The Tian Shan region also included important animals like bears, deer, and wild boar, which helped to spread seeds and expand ecological diversity. Among the vegetation colonizing the Tian Shan came, likely via birds from the east, the ancestors of what we know as the "sweet" apple. The fruit probably then looked like a tiny, long-stalked, bitter apple something like Malus baccata, the Siberian crab. The pips may have been carried in a bird's crop or clotted onto feet or feathers. The strain of ''Y. pestis'' which caused the bubonic plague now know as the

Black Death The Black Death was a bubonic plague pandemic that occurred in Europe from 1346 to 1353. It was one of the list of epidemics, most fatal pandemics in human history; as many as people perished, perhaps 50% of Europe's 14th century population. ...

may have originated in the Tian Shan, spreading along the

and killing half of Europe's population in the mid 1300s.

Climate

Tian Shan has an

alpine climate Alpine climate is the typical climate for elevations above the tree line, where trees fail to grow due to cold. This climate is also referred to as a mountain climate or highland climate. Definition There are multiple definitions of alpine cli ...

(

Köppen climate classification The Köppen climate classification divides Earth climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal precipitation and temperature. The five main groups are ''A'' (tropical), ''B'' (arid), ''C'' (te ...

''ETH'').

Religion

Tengrism

In Tengrism, Khan Tengri, is the lord of all spirits and the religion's supreme deity, and it is the name given to the second highest peak of Tian Shan.

Name

One of the earliest historical references to these mountains may be related to the

Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of Nomad, nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese historiography, Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, t ...

word ''Qilian'' ( zh, s=祁连, t=祁連, first=t, p=Qílián), which, according to Tang commentator Yan Shigu, is the Xiongnu word for "sky" or "heaven".

Sima Qian Sima Qian () was a Chinese historian during the early Han dynasty. He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for the ''Shiji'' (sometimes translated into English as ''Records of the Grand Historian''), a general history of China cov ...

, in the '' Records of the Grand Historian'', mentioned ''Qilian'' in relation to the homeland of the

Yuezhi The Yuezhi were an ancient people first described in China, Chinese histories as nomadic pastoralists living in an arid grassland area in the western part of the modern Chinese province of Gansu, during the 1st millennium BC. After a major defea ...

, and the term is believed to refer to the Tian Shan rather than the range further east now known as the Qilian Mountains. The name of the Otgontenger in

has the same meaning.

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

* ''The Contemporary Atlas of China''. 1988. London: Marshall Editions Ltd. Reprint 1989. Sydney, NSW: Collins Publishers Australia. * ''The Times Comprehensive Atlas of the World''. Eleventh Edition. 2003. London, England: Times Books Group Ltd.

External links

Russian mountaineering site

Tien Shan
*
United Nations University (2009) digital video "Finding a place to feed: Kyrgyz shepherds & pasture loss": Shepherd shares family's observations and adaptation to the changing climate in highland pastures of Kyrgyzstan's Tian Shan mountains
Accessed 1 December 2009 {{Authority control Mountain ranges of Kazakhstan Mountain ranges of Kyrgyzstan Mountain ranges of Xinjiang Geography of Central Asia Geography of East Asia Sites along the Silk Road World Heritage Sites in China Sacred mountains of China