Theophany () is an encounter with a

deity A deity or god is a supernatural being considered to be sacred and worthy of worship due to having authority over some aspect of the universe and/or life. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines ''deity'' as a God (male deity), god or god ...

that manifests in an observable and tangible form.. It is often confused with other types of encounters with a deity, but these interactions are not considered theophanies unless the deity reveals itself in a visible form. Traditionally, the term "theophany" was used to refer to appearances of the gods in ancient Greek and Near Eastern religions. While the ''

Iliad The ''Iliad'' (; , ; ) is one of two major Ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odyssey'', the poem is divided into 24 books and ...

'' is the earliest source for descriptions of theophanies in

classical antiquity Classical antiquity, also known as the classical era, classical period, classical age, or simply antiquity, is the period of cultural History of Europe, European history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD comprising the inter ...

, the first description appears in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh''. In numerous creation stories, a deity or deities speak with many kinds of animals, often prior to the formation of dry land on earth.

Definition and etymology

The term theophany derives from the

Ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...

word (), meaning "appearance of a god", from ( ''theós'' "

divinity Divinity (from Latin ) refers to the quality, presence, or nature of that which is divine—a term that, before the rise of monotheism, evoked a broad and dynamic field of sacred power. In the ancient world, divinity was not limited to a single ...

", and (, "to show" or "to appear"). In classical usage, it referred to visible appearances of deities to humans, especially in mythological contexts. These could be in anthropomorphic form or as other phenomena—light, fire, or cloud—and often served to affirm the deity's favor, deliver a message, or enact divine will. Similarly, in the

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. '' divine inspiration,

revelation Revelation, or divine revelation, is the disclosing of some form of Religious views on truth, truth or Knowledge#Religion, knowledge through communication with a deity (god) or other supernatural entity or entities in the view of religion and t ...

, or

incarnation Incarnation literally means ''embodied in flesh'' or ''taking on flesh''. It is the Conception (biology), conception and the embodiment of a deity or spirit in some earthly form or an Anthropomorphism, anthropomorphic form of a god. It is used t ...

, which refer to different types of religious experience. If the divine presence is expressed more broadly without being tied to a specific deity, the term hierophany may be preferred.

In ancient religions

Theophany played a prominent role in the mythological and ritual life of many ancient cultures. These manifestations of deities were understood not only as mythic narratives but also as real interventions into the world, often forming the basis of cultic practices, political legitimacy, or sacred geography. In ancient literature, theophanies frequently mark the establishment of divine authority or the commissioning of heroic or prophetic figures.

Mesopotamia

One of the earliest literary examples of a theophany occurs in the ''

Epic of Gilgamesh The ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' () is an epic poetry, epic from ancient Mesopotamia. The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian language, Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh (formerly read as Sumerian "Bilgames"), king of Uruk, some of ...

'', in which dreams and signs from the gods shape the journey of the hero. In Mesopotamian religion, divine appearances were often mediated through symbolic forms rather than direct anthropomorphic encounters. These included dreams, omens, celestial phenomena, or the interpretation of sacrificial entrails (extispicy), which were understood as messages from the gods. Dreams held a privileged place as vehicles of divine communication. In the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', both Gilgamesh and Enkidu receive dreams interpreted as divine guidance or warning. Similarly, in the ''Atrahasis'' myth, the god Enki communicates with the hero through a wall-dream to warn of the impending flood. Sacred statues were also considered theophanic, not merely symbolic. The cult image (''ṣalmu'') of a deity, once ritually enlivened in ceremonies such as the ''mouth-washing ritual'' (''mīs pî''), was believed to embody the living presence of the god. These statues could be carried into battle, consulted for oracles, or housed in temples where their " appearance" through ritual unveiling was part of public theophanic experience. The gods of Mesopotamia were understood to be simultaneously transcendent and present through their manifestations. Theophanies reinforced divine kingship, the legitimacy of priestly authority, and the city’s connection to the divine order of the cosmos.

Ancient Egypt

In Ancient Egyptian religion, theophanies were deeply integrated into both theology and kingship. Gods could manifest in animal, human, or composite forms, and divine presence was encountered not only in myth but also in ritual, sacred architecture, and royal ideology. The Pharaoh was considered the ''nṯr nfr'' ("perfect god") and the ''son of Re'', functioning as the living manifestation of divine order ('' maat'') on earth. Coronation rituals affirmed the king’s divine descent, and temple inscriptions regularly described the king speaking face-to-face with gods or receiving blessings in person. These theophanic encounters, though formulaic, were understood as real events within the cultic framework. Theophany was also enacted in ritual, especially through cult statues, which served as loci of divine presence. After undergoing a ritual of animation ("opening of the mouth"), these statues were housed in temple sanctuaries and revealed only to priests during daily rituals. In major festivals, however, they were carried in processions and paraded before the public, allowing the god to "appear" to the people. Deities could also reveal themselves through natural phenomena, especially in myths. The sun god Ra manifested daily in the solar theophany of sunrise and sunset, defeating chaos and reaffirming the world’s order. In myth, gods such as Isis and Horus took human form to intervene in the affairs of mortals, though these stories were told more as divine dramas than as historical events. Overall, Egyptian theophany was less focused on singular, ecstatic visions and more on the structured, ritualized presence of the gods as maintained through temple worship, kingship, and cosmic cycles.

Ancient Greece

In ancient Greek religion, theophanies typically occurred through visions or dreams, either spontaneously or as the result of ritual preparation. Although rare in historical accounts, mythological literature contains numerous examples of gods appearing to mortals in anthropomorphic form. These include Zeus appearing to Semele, Athena guiding

Odysseus In Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology, Odysseus ( ; , ), also known by the Latin variant Ulysses ( , ; ), is a legendary Greeks, Greek king of Homeric Ithaca, Ithaca and the hero of Homer's Epic poetry, epic poem, the ''Odyssey''. Od ...

, or Apollo communicating with seers and prophets. In historical cult practice, theophanies were reenacted and commemorated in ritual settings. At

Delphi Delphi (; ), in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), was an ancient sacred precinct and the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient Classical antiquity, classical world. The A ...

, the () was an annual spring festival celebrating the return of

Apollo Apollo is one of the Twelve Olympians, Olympian deities in Ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek and Ancient Roman religion, Roman religion and Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology. Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, mu ...

from his winter sojourn in Hyperborea. The climax of the festival involved the ritual unveiling of a sacred image of the god, usually concealed in the inner adyton of the temple. The Greek concept of (), closely related to theophany, emphasized the sudden and overwhelming appearance of the divine, especially in times of crisis. These manifestations could be experienced as visions, voices, or omens, and were often incorporated into local legends or used to legitimate political decisions. Some theorists, such as Julian Jaynes, have argued that such experiences reflect a now-lost mode of consciousness in which divine agency was perceived as external and directive, particularly in moments of stress or decision.

Ancient Rome

The tradition of divine appearance through dreams or altered consciousness continued into the

Hellenistic In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...

and Roman periods, where theophanies were increasingly associated with mystery cults and healing sanctuaries, such as those of

Asclepius Asclepius (; ''Asklēpiós'' ; ) is a hero and god of medicine in ancient Religion in ancient Greece, Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology. He is the son of Apollo and Coronis (lover of Apollo), Coronis, or Arsinoe (Greek myth), Ars ...

. In these contexts, supplicants would undergo ritual incubation (''enkoimesis''), sleeping within temple precincts in hopes of receiving a healing

vision Vision, Visions, or The Vision may refer to: Perception Optical perception * Visual perception, the sense of sight * Visual system, the physical mechanism of eyesight * Computer vision, a field dealing with how computers can be made to gain und ...

or instruction from the deity. Such theophanies were typically reported as dreams but were believed to be real encounters with the divine. Roman religion also inherited and formalized the practice of recognizing divine epiphanies in public life. Gods could manifest through omens, natural signs, or the sudden presence of a stranger delivering a divine message. These events were officially interpreted by augurs or priests of the state cults and could influence civic decisions. The reported in Roman historical sources, such as earthquakes, lightning strikes on temples, or spontaneous phenomena involving statues, were often treated as indirect theophanies that required ritual expiation. In the

imperial cult An imperial cult is a form of state religion in which an emperor or a dynasty of emperors (or rulers of another title) are worshipped as demigods or deities. "Cult (religious practice), Cult" here is used to mean "worship", not in the modern pejor ...

, the line between divinity and humanity was further blurred. Roman emperors, particularly after death, were often venerated as divine or semi-divine beings. Temples to the and institutionalized a form of theophanic presence, particularly during imperial festivals or military triumphs. The appearance of a halo or comet, such as the at Caesar’s funeral games, was interpreted as a visible sign of apotheosis and divine approval. Theophanic experience in Roman mystery religions—such as the cults of Mithras,

Isis Isis was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kingdom () as one of the main characters of the Osiris myth, in which she resurrects her sla ...

, and the

Eleusinian Mysteries The Eleusinian Mysteries () were initiations held every year for the Cult (religious practice), cult of Demeter and Persephone based at the Panhellenic Sanctuary of Eleusis in ancient Greece. They are considered the "most famous of the secret rel ...

—often emphasized visionary transformation, secrecy, and personal encounter with a god. Initiates sometimes reported seeing gods directly, especially in post-initiation visions. In this sense, Roman theophanies combined elements of civic ritual, philosophical symbolism, and personal mystical experience.

In Abrahamic traditions

Judaism

Judaism Judaism () is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, Monotheism, monotheistic, ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jews, Jewish people. Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of o ...

, theophanies are a central theme of the

Tanakh The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. ''

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. '' Moses In Abrahamic religions, Moses was the Hebrews, Hebrew prophet who led the Israelites out of slavery in the The Exodus, Exodus from ancient Egypt, Egypt. He is considered the most important Prophets in Judaism, prophet in Judaism and Samaritani ...

at the

burning bush The burning bush (or the unburnt bush) refers to an event recorded in the Jewish Torah (as also in the biblical Old Testament and Islamic scripture). It is described in the third chapter of the Book of Exodus as having occurred on Mount Horeb ...

on Mount Horeb, where the bush blazes with fire yet is not consumed. This encounter initiates Moses's prophetic mission and is followed by the theophany at

Mount Sinai Mount Sinai, also known as Jabal Musa (), is a mountain on the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. It is one of several locations claimed to be the Mount Sinai (Bible), biblical Mount Sinai, the place where, according to the sacred scriptures of the thre ...

, in which God descends in fire, thunder, and cloud to give the

Ten Commandments The Ten Commandments (), or the Decalogue (from Latin , from Ancient Greek , ), are religious and ethical directives, structured as a covenant document, that, according to the Hebrew Bible, were given by YHWH to Moses. The text of the Ten ...

to Israel. Other theophanic moments include the appearance of God to

Abraham Abraham (originally Abram) is the common Hebrews, Hebrew Patriarchs (Bible), patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father who began the Covenant (biblical), covenanta ...

in the form of three men (Genesis 18), to

Jacob Jacob, later known as Israel, is a Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions. He first appears in the Torah, where he is described in the Book of Genesis as a son of Isaac and Rebecca. Accordingly, alongside his older fraternal twin brother E ...

in a dream at Bethel (Genesis 28), and to the entire Israelite community in the pillar of cloud and fire during the Exodus from Egypt (Exodus 13:21–22). These appearances are understood in classical Jewish theology not as direct vision of God's essence—considered impossible—but as mediated manifestations that preserve God's transcendence. The language of sight and sound is often interpreted metaphorically by commentators like

Maimonides Moses ben Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (, ) and also referred to by the Hebrew acronym Rambam (), was a Sephardic rabbi and Jewish philosophy, philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah schola ...

, who stressed the philosophical principle that God is incorporeal and cannot truly be seen. The Shekhinah, a term used in

rabbinic literature Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, is the entire corpus of works authored by rabbis throughout Jewish history. The term typically refers to literature from the Talmudic era (70–640 CE), as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic ...

to denote the indwelling or presence of God, is sometimes described in quasi-theophanic terms, especially in mystical Judaism. The Merkabah visions in the Book of Ezekiel, and later elaborations in

Jewish mysticism Academic study of Jewish mysticism, especially since Gershom Scholem's ''Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism'' (1941), draws distinctions between different forms of mysticism which were practiced in different eras of Jewish history. Of these, Kabbal ...

, also depict visionary encounters with the divine that combine symbolic imagery with cosmic elements.

Christianity

Christians generally recognize the same Old Testament theophanies as the Jews. In addition, there are at least two events seen as theophanies mentioned in the

New Testament The New Testament (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus, as well as events relating to Christianity in the 1st century, first-century Christianit ...

, the baptism and

transfiguration of Jesus The Transfiguration of Jesus is an event described in the New Testament where Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is Transfiguration (religion), transfigured and becomes radiant in Glory (religion), glory upon a mountain. The Synoptic Gospels (, , ) r ...

( epiphanies). While some Eastern Orthodox Churches refer to the baptism of Jesus by

John the Baptist John the Baptist ( – ) was a Jewish preacher active in the area of the Jordan River in the early first century AD. He is also known as Saint John the Forerunner in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, John the Immerser in some Baptist ...

as "theophany", some theologians discourage such usage, arguing that the entire life of Jesus must be seen as a prolonged theophany. Traditional analysis of the Biblical passages led Christian scholars to understand ''theophany'' as an unambiguous manifestation of God to man. Otherwise, the more general term hierophany is used.

Latter Day Saint movement

The

Latter Day Saint movement The Latter Day Saint movement (also called the LDS movement, LDS restorationist movement, or Smith–Rigdon movement) is the collection of independent church groups that trace their origins to a Christian Restorationist movement founded by ...

regards a series of theophanic events as foundational to its theology and origins. The most significant is the ''First Vision'', in which

Joseph Smith Joseph Smith Jr. (December 23, 1805June 27, 1844) was an American religious and political leader and the founder of Mormonism and the Latter Day Saint movement. Publishing the Book of Mormon at the age of 24, Smith attracted tens of thou ...

reported that, at the age of fourteen, he experienced a vision of

God the Father God the Father is a title given to God in Christianity. In mainstream trinitarian Christianity, God the Father is regarded as the first Person of the Trinity, followed by the second person, Jesus Christ the Son, and the third person, God th ...

and

Jesus Christ Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...

in a grove near his home in upstate New York. This event is considered a theophany and marks the beginning of the Restoration in Latter-day Saint belief. The Book of Mormon also contains accounts of divine manifestations. Mark Alan Wright has examined these narratives in the context of Mesoamerican sacred traditions, suggesting that such theophanies and hierophanies reflect both ancient Near Eastern and New World cultural frameworks. One prominent example is the vision of the prophet Lehi in the opening chapter of the *First Book of Nephi*. In a study employing form-critical analysis, Blake T. Ostler compares Lehi's vision with biblical throne-theophanies, arguing that the pattern of divine commissioning closely parallels prophetic call narratives in the Hebrew Bible.

Islam

The Miʿrāj, the Prophet

Muhammad Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...

's ascent into heaven, is sometimes interpreted as a form of theophany, although direct encounter with God is veiled or metaphysical. The Prophet is guided by the angel Jibrīl (Gabriel) and is traditionally said to approach the Divine Presence at the highest heaven.

Druze Faith

Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the

Druze The Druze ( ; , ' or ', , '), who Endonym and exonym, call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn (), are an Arabs, Arab Eastern esotericism, esoteric Religious denomination, religious group from West Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic ...

and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts, he proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah is an important figure in the

faith whose eponymous founder ad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018.

Baháʼí Faith

The

Baháʼí Faith The Baháʼí Faith is a religion founded in the 19th century that teaches the Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion, essential worth of all religions and Baháʼí Faith and the unity of humanity, the unity of all people. Established by ...

believes that God is manifest in the

prophet In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divinity, divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings ...

s. The "Manifestation of God" is a concept that refers to prophets like

Zoroaster Zarathushtra Spitama, more commonly known as Zoroaster or Zarathustra, was an Iranian peoples, Iranian religious reformer who challenged the tenets of the contemporary Ancient Iranian religion, becoming the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism ...

Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist lege ...

Moses In Abrahamic religions, Moses was the Hebrews, Hebrew prophet who led the Israelites out of slavery in the The Exodus, Exodus from ancient Egypt, Egypt. He is considered the most important Prophets in Judaism, prophet in Judaism and Samaritani ...

Jesus Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...

, the Báb, and

Baháʼu'lláh Baháʼu'lláh (, born Ḥusayn-ʻAlí; 12 November 1817 – 29 May 1892) was an Iranian religious leader who founded the Baháʼí Faith. He was born to an aristocratic family in Iran and was exiled due to his adherence to the messianic Báb ...

. The Manifestations of God are a series of personages who reflect the attributes of the divine in the human world, for the progress and advancement of human morals and civilization. A 1991 article in the ''Journal of Bahá’í Studies'' (JBS), described "Bahá’í theophanology" as "acceptance of the Prophet, or 'Manifestation of God,' who speaks on behalf of God." The author explained that Bahá’u’lláh wrote a series of epistles in the 1860s to kings and rulers, including

Pope Pius IX Pope Pius IX (; born Giovanni Maria Battista Pietro Pellegrino Isidoro Mastai-Ferretti; 13 May 1792 – 7 February 1878) was head of the Catholic Church from 1846 to 1878. His reign of nearly 32 years is the longest verified of any pope in hist ...

Napoleon III Napoleon III (Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April 18089 January 1873) was President of France from 1848 to 1852 and then Emperor of the French from 1852 until his deposition in 1870. He was the first president, second emperor, and last ...

, Tsar

Alexander II of Russia Alexander II ( rus, Алекса́ндр II Никола́евич, Aleksándr II Nikoláyevich, p=ɐlʲɪˈksandr ftɐˈroj nʲɪkɐˈlajɪvʲɪtɕ; 29 April 181813 March 1881) was Emperor of Russia, Congress Poland, King of Poland and Grand Du ...

Queen Victoria Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until Death and state funeral of Queen Victoria, her death in January 1901. Her reign of 63 year ...

, and Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, in a "forceful, theophanic voice" calling them to undertake reforms. These letters were published in a compilation entitled ''

Summons of the Lord of Hosts The ''Summons of the Lord of Hosts'' is a collection of the Tablet (religious), tablets of Baháʼu'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, that were written to the kings and rulers of the world during his exile in Adrianople and in the early ye ...

'' in 2002. The ''JBS'' article described Bahá’u’lláh's "Theophanology" as "progressivist". He claimed "spiritual Authority" in these letters in which he warned western leaders of the dangers facing humanity should they choose to not act on His Guidance.

In Indian and East Asian traditions

Hinduism

The most well-known theophany is in the

Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita (; ), often referred to as the Gita (), is a Hindu texts, Hindu scripture, dated to the second or first century BCE, which forms part of the Hindu epic, epic poem Mahabharata. The Gita is a synthesis of various strands of Ind ...

, one chapter of the larger epic of Mahabharata. On the battlefield of Kurukshetra, the god Krishna gives the famed warrior Arjuna a series of teachings. Arjuna begs for Krishna to reveal his "universal form." Krishna complies and gives Arjuna the spiritual vision, enabling him to see Krishna in the universal form. A number of other theophanies are described in the Mahabharata. First, the god

Indra Indra (; ) is the Hindu god of weather, considered the king of the Deva (Hinduism), Devas and Svarga in Hinduism. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes Indra is the m ...

's appearance to

Kunti Kunti (, un̪t̪iː ), also known as Pritha (, ">r̩t̪ʰaː/nowiki>, ), is a prominent female character in the ancient Hindu epic '' Mahabharata''. She is chiefly recognised as the mother of the central characters—the five Pandavas—h ...

, with the subsequent birth of the hero Arjuna. Near the end of the epic, the god Yama takes the form of a dog to test the compassion of Yudhishthira. Even though Yudhishthira is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal, he refuses to abandon his companion, earning him praise from Dharma. In the

Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...

Ramayana The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...

, the monkey leader

Hanuman Hanuman (; , ), also known as Maruti, Bajrangabali, and Anjaneya, is a deity in Hinduism, revered as a divine ''vanara'', and a devoted companion of the deity Rama. Central to the ''Ramayana'', Hanuman is celebrated for his unwavering devotio ...

is informed by deities, and usually consciously addressed by them.

Chinese mythology

Chinese mythology Chinese mythology () is mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature throughout the area now known as Greater China. Chinese mythology encompasses a diverse array of myths derived from regional and cultural tradit ...

, particularly in the Ming dynasty novel ''

Journey to the West ''Journey to the West'' () is a Chinese novel published in the 16th century during the Ming dynasty and attributed to Wu Cheng'en. It is regarded as one of the Classic Chinese Novels, great Chinese novels, and has been described as arguably the ...

'', the Monkey King, Sun Wukong, encounters

bodhisattvas In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, ''Enlightenment in Buddhism, bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal n ...

such as

Guanyin Guanyin () is a common Chinese name of the bodhisattva associated with Karuṇā, compassion known as Avalokiteśvara (). Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, which means " he One WhoPerceives the Sounds of the World". Originally regarded as m ...

and the

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...

himself, along with numerous deities from the Daoist and

Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

pantheons. These appearances function as theophanies within the cosmological framework of Chinese religion and literature.

Modern and contemporary views

Reported experiences

Science fiction Science fiction (often shortened to sci-fi or abbreviated SF) is a genre of speculative fiction that deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts. These concepts may include information technology and robotics, biological manipulations, space ...

writer Philip K. Dick reportedly had a Theophany on 3 February 1974, which would become the basis for his semi- biographic works '' VALIS'' (1981) and '' Radio Free Albemuth'' (1985). In 1977, Michel Potay testified he witnessed five Theophanies. He published the text he says he received from God in "The Book", the second part of The Revelation of Ares. There are a large number of modern cases which have been rendered into print, film, and otherwise conveyed to broad publics. Some cases have become popular books and media, including: * '' A Course in Miracles'' which is attested as divinely channeled; * '' The Attentive Heart: Conversations with Trees'', in which the spirits contacted are resident in species that do not usually speak in the ordinary sense of human speech. These instances are distinguished from cases in which divine encounters are explicitly considered fictional by the author, a frequent motif in

speculative fiction Speculative fiction is an umbrella term, umbrella genre of fiction that encompasses all the subgenres that depart from Realism (arts), realism, or strictly imitating everyday reality, instead presenting fantastical, supernatural, futuristic, or ...

such as in Julian May's '' Galactic Milieu Series''.

Psychological and phenomenological views

Modern psychology of religion and phenomenology have approached theophany not only as a theological concept but also as a human experience shaped by culture, cognition, and altered states of consciousness. Scholars in these fields investigate theophanies as phenomena that reveal both the structure of religious consciousness and the dynamics of visionary or numinous experience.

William James William James (January 11, 1842 – August 26, 1910) was an American philosopher and psychologist. The first educator to offer a psychology course in the United States, he is considered to be one of the leading thinkers of the late 19th c ...

, in '' The Varieties of Religious Experience'' (1902), treated theophanies as part of a broader category of mystical and revelatory experience. He emphasized the subjective intensity and life-transforming nature of such encounters, proposing that their psychological authenticity can be studied independently of their objective truth. Rudolf Otto's influential work '' The Idea of the Holy'' (1917) described theophanic experience in terms of the ''

numinous Numinous () means "arousing spiritual or religious emotion; mysterious or awe-inspiring";Collins English Dictionary - 7th ed. - 2005 also "supernatural" or "appealing to the aesthetic sensibility." The term was given its present sense by the Ger ...

'', characterized by ''mysterium tremendum et fascinans''—a sense of awe, fear, and attraction before the presence of the wholly Other. Otto's phenomenological analysis does not focus on specific religious traditions but on the universal structure of the experience itself, which he regarded as sui generis. In more recent scholarship,

Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and psychologist who founded the school of analytical psychology. A prolific author of Carl Jung publications, over 20 books, illustrator, and corr ...

and his followers interpreted theophanies as symbolic expressions of the collective unconscious, often emerging in dreams or visionary states. Jung saw the archetype of the "Self" as capable of appearing in divine or godlike form in such experiences. Anthropological and cognitive theories of religion, such as those advanced by Pascal Boyer and others, explore theophanies as culturally patterned manifestations of agency detection and hyperactive cognitive processes. These approaches emphasize how human minds interpret ambiguous stimuli—dreams, natural events, internal voices—as potentially divine in origin. While some scholars stress the authenticity of theophanic reports within their religious frameworks, others see such experiences as shaped by psychological states including trauma, ecstasy, dissociation, or neurological anomalies. In this view, theophanies are not dismissed as hallucinations, but contextualized as deeply meaningful within the lived world of the experiencer.

References

Works cited

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * volumes * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

External links

"Eusebius of Caesarea"
at the Tertullian Project

The Shechina returns to Earth
{{Authority control Divinity Religious terminology