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The ''Durham Proverbs'' is a collection of 46
medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...
proverbs from various sources. They were written down as a collection, in the eleventh century, on some pages (pages 43
verso ''Recto'' is the "right" or "front" side and ''verso'' is the "left" or "back" side when text is written or printed on a leaf of paper () in a bound item such as a codex, book, broadsheet, or pamphlet. In double-sided printing, each leaf h ...
to 45 verso, between a
hymnal A hymnal or hymnary is a collection of hymns, usually in the form of a book, called a hymnbook (or hymn book). They are used in congregational singing. A hymnal may contain only hymn texts (normal for most hymnals for most centuries of Christia ...
and a collection of
canticle In the context of Christian liturgy, a canticle (from the Latin ''canticulum'', a diminutive of ''canticum'', "song") is a psalm-like song with biblical lyrics taken from elsewhere than the Book of Psalms, but included in psalters and books su ...
s) of a manuscript that were originally left blank. The manuscript is currently in the collection of
Durham Cathedral Durham Cathedral, formally the , is a Church of England cathedral in the city of Durham, England. The cathedral is the seat of the bishop of Durham and is the Mother Church#Cathedral, mother church of the diocese of Durham. It also contains the ...
, to which it was donated in the eighteenth century. The ''Proverbs'' form the first part of the manuscript. The second part, to which it is bound, is a copy of
Ælfric Ælfric (Old English ', Middle English ''Elfric'') is an Anglo-Saxon given name, consisting of the elements ''ælf'', "elf" and ''ric'', "a powerful person, ruler". Churchmen * Ælfric of Eynsham (c. 955–c. 1010), late 10th century Anglo-Sax ...
's ''Grammar'' (minus its glossary). Each proverb is written in both
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
and
Old English Old English ( or , or ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. It developed from the languages brought to Great Britain by Anglo-S ...
, with the former preceding the latter. Olof Arngart's opinion is that the Proverbs were originally in Old English and translated to Latin, but this has since been disputed in a conference paper by
T. A. Shippey T, or t, is the twentieth letter of the English alphabet. T may also refer to: Codes and units * T, Tera- as in one trillion * T, the symbol for "True" in logic * T, the usual symbol for period, the reciprocal of frequency * T, the symbol ...
.


Origin

While Richard Marsden's introduction in ''The Cambridge Old English Reader'' discusses the essentials of the Durham Proverbs, there is still more to be learned. The Durham Proverbs are held in a manuscript that is kept in the library of Durham Cathedral, which is why they are named the "Durham" Proverbs. The original home of the manuscript is thought most likely to have been in
Canterbury Canterbury (, ) is a City status in the United Kingdom, city and UNESCO World Heritage Site, in the county of Kent, England; it was a county borough until 1974. It lies on the River Stour, Kent, River Stour. The city has a mild oceanic climat ...
. The original manuscript of the Durham Proverbs contains copies of
Ælfric Ælfric (Old English ', Middle English ''Elfric'') is an Anglo-Saxon given name, consisting of the elements ''ælf'', "elf" and ''ric'', "a powerful person, ruler". Churchmen * Ælfric of Eynsham (c. 955–c. 1010), late 10th century Anglo-Sax ...
's own work. Several of the proverbs also appear in later works of the thirteenth-century. Considering the repetition of their use, during later times and in future works, stresses their importance from the eleventh-century society. For every one of the Durham Proverbs, there is a Latin version. The commonalities between the Latin version of the proverbs and the Old English version, in more than one manuscript, suggest that there was a common source from which the Durham Proverbs were created in Old English from Latin.


Background and history

The Durham Proverbs are considered to have been used to document everyday business of the people of Anglo-Saxon England. The proverbs were used in monastic schools to teach text along with other texts such as the ''
Disticha Catonis The ''Distichs of Cato'' (Latin: ''Catonis Disticha'', most famously known simply as ''Cato'') is a Latin collection of proverbial wisdom and morality by an unknown author from the 3rd or 4th century AD. The ''Cato'' was the most popular medieva ...
'' (also known as the "Dicts of Cato") and a Middle English collection titled the Proverbs of Hendyng. Several of the proverbs have parallels within other proverbs listed below, as well as the Old English Disticha Catonis and the Proverbs of Hendyng. Despite their use, the source of these proverbs is largely debated and still considered unknown. Olof Arngart's notes on the Durham Proverbs say that some of the proverbs have a biblical reference. The book of Proverbs in the Bible resembles the Durham Proverbs by providing teachings on morals for a society of its time. The "Dicts of Cato" were also influenced by the Durham Proverbs, which in turn, influenced Christianity. The first of the Durham Proverbs can even be seen in the Dict of Cato 23.


Purpose

The Durham Proverbs comprise a mixture of true proverbs and maxims, and are clearer in this regard, according to linguist and Anglo-Saxon anthropologist Nigel Barley , than the collection of Old English poems entitled the '' Maxims'' are — the latter's status being comparatively unclear. According to the ''Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages'' a maxim is a short statement that (as Laingui puts it) "sets out a general principle", that briefly expounds a liturgical, legal, moral, or political rule as a short
mnemonic A mnemonic device ( ), memory trick or memory device is any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval in the human memory, often by associating the information with something that is easier to remember. It makes use of e ...
device. The Durham Proverbs are called proverbs because the collection has what Marsden calls "transferability" to man. The Durham Proverbs are not as serious as some of the Old English maxims and can even be considered humorous in some areas. The proverbs are similar to fables or parables seen in Modern English. Each proverb has a lesson to teach, as do the fables and parables. It is important to note the proverbs' resemblance to Old English poetry. Using alliteration and rhythm, the proverbs show some of the earliest uses of words and phrases, such as "cwæþ se (þe)" which translates to "quoth he who", and is later seen in more Middle English sources. In addition to their importance of gaining knowledge of the Old English history, the proverbs include many words that are not seen anywhere else in Old English writings. Arngart suggests that the study of the proverbs "furnishes insights into contemporary folklore and social life".


The proverbs themselves

The proverbs have their roots in
gnomic poetry Gnomic poetry consists of meaningful sayings put into verse to aid the memory. They were known by the Greeks as gnomes (cf. the Greek adjective γνωμικός (''gnomikos'') "appertaining to an opinion or aphorism"). A ''gnome'' was defined by t ...
, and show a relationship in some places to the ''
Disticha Catonis The ''Distichs of Cato'' (Latin: ''Catonis Disticha'', most famously known simply as ''Cato'') is a Latin collection of proverbial wisdom and morality by an unknown author from the 3rd or 4th century AD. The ''Cato'' was the most popular medieva ...
'' and other works of the surviving Anglo-Saxon corpus. The Old English versions are sometimes (but not always) alliterative, or in verse form, and employ the same formulae with " sceal" and " byþ" as other works do. However, they have a distinctive flavour of their own, one outstanding characteristic of which is the humorous expression that they embody (as in number 11, for example) — a quality that is lacking in the gnomes. A yet more distinctive feature is how often the proverbs echo the verse of other works, such as the echo of '' The Wanderer'' in number 23. Below are the first 25 Durham Proverbs: :Geþyld byð middes ēades. : :Frēond dēah feor ge nēah: byð near nyttra. : :Æt þearfe mann sceal freonda cunnian. : :Nafað ǣnigmann frēonda tō feala. : :Beforan his frēonde biddeþ, sē þe his wǣdel mǣneþ. : :Gōd gēr byþ þonne se hund þām hrefne gyfeð. ::''"It is a good year when the hound gives to the raven."'' :Oft on sōtigum bylige searowa licgað. : :Hwīlum æfter medo menn mǣst geþyrsteð. : :Æfter leofan menn langað swīðost. : :Nū hit ys on swīnes dōme, cwæð se ceorl sæt on eoferes hricge. : :Ne swā þēah trēowde þēah þū teala ēode, cwæþ sē þe geseah hægtessan æfter hēafde geongan. ::''"Nonetheless, I would not trust you though you walked well.", said he who saw a witch passing along on her head.'' :Eall on mūðe þæt on mōde. : :Gemǣne sceal māga feoh. : :Man dēþ swā hē byþ þonne hē mōt swā hē wile. : :Ne saga sagan, cwæð sē gesēah hwer fulne hēalena sēoþan. : ::Marsden suggests there is a word that has been omitted here, and thus there is an unclear translation that could hold various meanings. When Marsden attempted to compare this to the Latin version, it was quite different. Marsden says, "So far, we must accept defeat on this one". :Eaðe wīs man mæg witan spell and ēac secgan. : :Blind byþ bām ēagum, sē þe brēostum ne starat. : :Ðā ne sacað þe ætsamne ne bēoð. : :Ne dēah eall sōþ āsǣd ne eall sār ætwiten. ::''It does no good (for) all truth (to be) told nor all wrong imputed.'' ::For subsequent variations on this same proverb, from Chaucer to Horman's ''
Vulgaria ''Vulgaria'' () is a 2012 Hong Kong comedy film directed by Pang Ho-cheung. The film won Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress at the 32nd Hong Kong Film Award. Plot Struggling movie producer To Wai-cheung is hardly able to make a ...
'', see . :Gyf þū well sprece, wyrc æfter swā. : :Earh mæg þæt an þæt he him ondræde. ::''A coward can do only one thing: fear.'' ::" earh" means coward here and is glossed as such in contemporary works ("timidorum militum" in Aldhelm's '' De Virginitate'' being translated as "eargra cempana"), although the more general meaning of the word in O.E. was "sloth" or "sluggard". :Nē sceal man tō ǣr forht nē tō ǣr fægen. ::''One should be neither too soon fearful nor too soon glad.'' ::The proverb has echoes of ''The Wanderer'' ("nē tō forht nē tō fægen", 150). The twain have been variously translated. T. A. Shippey, who writes the O.E. of the ''Proverbs'' as "ǣrforht" and "ǣrfægen", explains "glad-too-soon" as meaning optimistic. The Latin version of the proverb is "nec ilico arrigens", which translates as "nor quick to rouse" rather than the "glad" or "happy" usually ascribed to the O.E. form. (For further exploration of the Latin by Arngart see .) : :Hwon gelpeð se þe wide siþað. ::''A little boasts he who travels widely.'' ::This proverb echoes sentiments expressed in ''
Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða ''Hrafnkels saga'' (; ) or ''Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða'' (O.N.: ; Ice.: ) is one of the Icelanders' sagas. It tells of struggles between chieftains and farmers in the east of Iceland in the 10th century. The eponymous main character, Hrafnkell, st ...
'', namely that travel abroad, where one is treated as an adult, spurs young men to self-confidence, thinking themselves "greater than chiefs" upon their return home.


References


Bibliography

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Further reading


Original manuscript and modern republications

* Durham Cathedral ms B iii. 32 LUA 52; http://www.digipal.eu/digipal/page/1026/ *


Scholarly analyses

* * * * * * * * **''also published as:'' * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Durham Proverbs Old English literature Durham Cathedral Proverbs