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The Thal desert (
Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
''
, Punjabi: ) is situated at 31°10’ N and 71°30’ E in the province of
Punjab Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising ...
,
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
. Located near the
Pothohar Plateau The Pothohar Plateau ( ur, ) is a plateau in north-eastern Pakistan, located between Indus River and the Jhelum River, forming the northern part of Punjab. Geography Potohar Plateau is bounded on the east by the Jhelum River, on the west by the ...
, the area falls under the
Indomalayan The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia. Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Indi ...
biogeographic realm and stretches for a length of approximately 190 miles (306 km) with a maximum breadth of 70 miles (113 km). It is bound by the piedmont of the northern
Salt Range The Salt Range ( pnb, ) is a mountain range in the north of Punjab province of Pakistan, deriving its name from its extensive deposits of rock salt. The range extends along the south of the Potohar Plateau and the north of the Jhelum River. Th ...
, the
Indus River The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kash ...
flood plains in the west and the
Jhelum Jhelum (Punjabi and ur, ) is a city on the east bank of the Jhelum River, which is located in the district of Jhelum in the north of Punjab province, Pakistan. It is the 44th largest city of Pakistan by population. Jhelum is known for pr ...
and
Chenab The Chenab River () is a major river that flows in India and Pakistan, and is one of the 5 major rivers of the Punjab region. It is formed by the union of two headwaters, Chandra and Bhaga, which rise in the upper Himalayas in the Lahaul ...
River
floodplain A floodplain or flood plain or bottomlands is an area of land adjacent to a river which stretches from the banks of its channel to the base of the enclosing valley walls, and which experiences flooding during periods of high discharge.Goudi ...
s in the east. It is a subtropical sandy desert that resembles the deserts of Cholistan and Thar geographically. The region is characterized by
sand dunes A dune is a landform composed of wind- or water-driven sand. It typically takes the form of a mound, ridge, or hill. An area with dunes is called a dune system or a dune complex. A large dune complex is called a dune field, while broad, f ...
, prone to massive shifting and rolling, as well as scanty rainfall, high diurnal variation of temperature and high wind velocity.
Arid A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most ...
ity is a common feature and
perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...
grasses make up much of the
vegetation Vegetation is an assemblage of plant species and the ground cover they provide. It is a general term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life forms, structure, spatial extent, or any other specific botanical or geographic charact ...
.
Agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peop ...
and
livestock Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to anima ...
rearing form the main sources of livelihood for the population, who live in small scattered settlements throughout the desert.


Geography

The Thal desert of Pakistan lies at altitudes above sea levels of approximately 200m in the north which gradually decrease to around 120m in the south. It falls under the agro-ecological zone-III and is a sandy,
arid A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most ...
to semi-arid region. The desert is divided into the districts of
Bhakkar Bhakkar ( ur, ), is the principal city of Bhakkar District located in Punjab, Pakistan. It lies on the left bank of the Indus River. It is the 86th largest city in Pakistan. Administration Bhakkar city is also the administrative centre of B ...
,
Khushab Khushab (punjabi: خُوشاب) is a town as well as a district of Sargodha Division, located in the Punjab province of Pakistan. The word ''Khushab'' means "sweet water." Khushab city also serves as the headquarters of Khushab Tehsil, an admini ...
,
Mianwali Mianwali (Punjabi/ ur, ) is the capital city of Mianwali District in Punjab, Pakistan. The 81st largest city of Pakistan, it is known for its diverse population of, Punjabi and Pashtun ethnicities. History Mianwali District was an agricult ...
,
Jhang Jhang (Punjabi, ur, ), ) is the capital city of Jhang District, in the central portion of the province of Punjab, Pakistan. Situated on the east bank of the Chenab river, it is the 18th largest city of Pakistan by population. The histori ...
, Layyah and Muzzafargarh, all of whom which display very similar geographical features. The main towns of the region, which see the greatest human activity, include Roda Thal, Mankera, Hayderabad Thal,
Dullewala Dullewala ( ur, ) is a town in the Bhakkar District in Punjab, Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependenci ...
, Piplan, Kundiyan,
Chowk Azam Chowk Azam is a city in the Layyah District of Punjab, Pakistan. It is located from Layyah, the headquarters of the Layyah District, on the Mianwali and Multan road (MM road). Chowk Azam has an estimated population of more than 150,000 peop ...
, Saraye Muhajir, Mehmood Shaheed Thal, Rang Pur, Jandan Wala, Mari Shah Sakhira,
Noor Pur Noor or Nour may refer to: People *Noor (name) *Queen Noor of Jordan Fiction * ''Noor'' (film), a 2017 Bollywood film * ''Noor'' (play), a 2009 play by Akbar Ahmed *''Noor'', a 2020 Pakistani television series with Usama Khan * ''Noor'' (novel), ...
Thal, and Muzafar Garh. The desert largely consists of ridges of sand dunes and rolling sand plains which alternate with narrow valleys of flatter, more cultivable land. These sand dunes are a prominent feature of the zone and consist of
sediment Sediment is a naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of wind, water, or ice or by the force of gravity acting on the particles. For example, sa ...
reworked by wind and brought in by the Indus River, which lays upstream of the orogenic front. They commonly reach heights of around 175m and cover 50-60% of the Thal desert. The area is also underlain by Quaternary
fluvial In geography and geology, fluvial processes are associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them. When the stream or rivers are associated with glaciers, ice sheets, or ice caps, the term glaciofluvial or fluv ...
and eolian deposits over 350m thick in southern areas, and even thicker in the central region of the desert. This underlying
alluvium Alluvium (from Latin ''alluvius'', from ''alluere'' 'to wash against') is loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel that has been deposited by running water in a stream bed, on a floodplain, in an alluvial fan or beach, or in similar settings. Alluv ...
consists largely of laterally continuous bodies of fine to coarse sand, with minor
gravel Gravel is a loose aggregation of rock fragments. Gravel occurs naturally throughout the world as a result of sedimentary and erosive geologic processes; it is also produced in large quantities commercially as crushed stone. Gravel is classif ...
and isolated mud lenses. Coarser deposits occur in the north closer to the
Salt Range The Salt Range ( pnb, ) is a mountain range in the north of Punjab province of Pakistan, deriving its name from its extensive deposits of rock salt. The range extends along the south of the Potohar Plateau and the north of the Jhelum River. Th ...
, but otherwise the distribution of grain sizes is irregular. The currently active Indus River flood plain stretches > 20 km in width at the southern edges of the desert and the abandoned floodplain reaches even wider, covering areas of higher ground.Greenman, D.W., Swarzenski, W.V., Bennett, G.D., 1967. Ground-Water Hydrology of the Punjab, West Pakistan, with Emphasis on Problems Caused by Canal Irrigation. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, United States Geological Survey, Water-supply paper 1608H. pp. 1–66. These uplands are actively eroded by the Jhelum River and form up to scarps which face the floodplain. As compared to the Upper Indus sand, the sand dunes of the Thal are poorer in
quartz Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica ( silicon dioxide). The atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical ...
and
sedimentary Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the accumulation or deposition of mineral or organic particles at Earth's surface, followed by cementation. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause these particles ...
to low-rank
metasedimentary rock In geology, metasedimentary rock is a type of metamorphic rock. Such a rock was first formed through the deposition and solidification of sediment Sediment is a naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and ...
fragments. However, they are higher in
feldspar Feldspars are a group of rock-forming aluminium tectosilicate minerals, also containing other cations such as sodium, calcium, potassium, or barium. The most common members of the feldspar group are the ''plagioclase'' (sodium-calcium) feld ...
s,
volcanic A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates ...
, metavolcanic and metabasite rock fragments and heavy
mineral In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. ...
s. The dune sand is thought to be derived from the
Transhimalaya The Transhimalaya (also spelled Trans-Himalaya), or "Gangdise – Nyenchen Tanglha range" ( zh, s=冈底斯-念青唐古拉山脉, p=Gāngdǐsī-Niànqīngtánggǔlā Shānmài), is a mountain range in China, India and Nepal, extending in a wes ...
n arcs (40–45%, predominantly from the Kohistan arc), the Karakorum-Hindukush Ranges (40–50%, of which a third is via the Kabul River), the
Nanga Parbat Nanga Parbat ( ur, ) (; ), known locally as Diamer () which means “king of the mountains”, is the ninth-highest mountain on Earth, its summit at above sea level. Lying immediately southeast of the northernmost bend of the Indus River in ...
massif (< 10%), and the Himalayan belt (< 10%, inclusive of
detritus In biology, detritus () is dead particulate organic material, as distinguished from dissolved organic material. Detritus typically includes the bodies or fragments of bodies of dead organisms, and fecal material. Detritus typically hosts commu ...
recycled by the
Soan River The Soan River ( ur, ), also referred to as the Swan, Sawan, or Sohan, is a river in Punjab, Pakistan. Location and geography The Soan River is a stream in the Pothohar or North Punjab region of Pakistan, and drains much of the water of Pot ...
).


Climate

The Thal desert is a subtropical sandy region with severe climatic conditions that are prone to temperature extremes.  Approximately 50% of the region sees
hyper-arid A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most ...
climatic conditions (annual rainfall less than 200mm) and the remaining half sees semi-arid climatic conditions (annual rainfall between 200mm and 500mm). The desert is also characterised by strong winds that blow year-round and can cause serious wind
erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is di ...
that leads to local crop damage.


Temperature

Summers in the area see temperatures generally range from 32o C - 40o C and average around 35o C between June to July. However, southern borne hot winds blowing with high velocity can see these temperatures rise to over 45oC.
Dust storm A dust storm, also called a sandstorm, is a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions. Dust storms arise when a gust front or other strong wind blows loose sand and dirt from a dry surface. Fine particles are tra ...
s, resulting from unsteady thermal conditions, are also common in the summer months. This has made crop cultivation challenging as the soil becomes difficult to bind, leading to extensive erosion and losses for the farming community. In the winter, temperatures vary between 3o C and 8o C and are accompanied by cold, dry winds from the north. In January, temperatures can reach near freezing point.


Precipitation

The Thal Desert's rainfall patterns are low and erratic with mean annual values ranging between 150-350mm. The majority of precipitation occurs between the months of June and August however there is high variability across seasons and even years. Total annual rainfall has been seen to progressively decrease from the northern end of the desert to the south. It also displays cyclic fluctuations where two to three years of continued decreased rainfall is followed up by several years of higher precipitation levels.
Hailstorms Hail is a form of solid precipitation. It is distinct from ice pellets (American English "sleet"), though the two are often confused. It consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, each of which is called a hailstone. Ice pellets generally f ...
, generated by air
turbulence In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is fluid motion characterized by chaotic changes in pressure and flow velocity. It is in contrast to a laminar flow, which occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between ...
owing to the high temperature difference between the warm surface and the cold upper atmosphere, are also common between March and April and can cause severe damage to crop and buildings.


Vegetation and Flora

The vegetation of the Thal Desert consists predominantly of grasses and
sedges The Cyperaceae are a family of graminoid (grass-like), monocotyledonous flowering plants known as sedges. The family is large, with some 5,500 known species described in about 90 genera, the largest being the "true sedges" genus ''Carex'' wi ...
which are most commonly used as
fodder Fodder (), also called provender (), is any agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such as cattle, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. "Fodder" refers particularly to food given to the animals (including ...
by the local population. Thorny and prickly shrubs as well as perennial herbs capable of enduring droughts, are also present.Shaheen, H. (2015). ''FLORISTIC AND ETHNOBOTANICAL ENUMERATION of THAL DESERT, PUNJAB, PAKISTAN'' (Ph.D). Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi. A floristic checklist of the Thal desert observed that '' Poaceae'' was the main family with 52 species. Most of the flora is of
herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition ...
nature, followed by grasses, trees, shrubs, sedges and climbers in decreasing abundance. The only trees which grow in the desert include the ''Khagal'', ''Shareen'', ''
Acacia ''Acacia'', commonly known as the wattles or acacias, is a large genus of shrubs and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae. Initially, it comprised a group of plant species native to Africa and Australasia. The genus n ...
'', ''Beri'' (Ziziphus Jajoba) and ''Karir'' types.Lok Sanjh Foundation. (2013). ''Thal Desert: A Research Study on Understanding Desert Ecology and Livelihood Patterns''
book A book is a medium for recording information in the form of writing or images, typically composed of many pages (made of papyrus, parchment, vellum, or paper) bound together and protected by a cover. The technical term for this phys ...
Retrieved from http://loksanjh.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Desert_Ecology_Study.pdf
Ephemeral Ephemerality (from the Greek word , meaning 'lasting only one day') is the concept of things being transitory, existing only briefly. Academically, the term ephemeral constitutionally describes a diverse assortment of things and experiences, fr ...
herbs also appear seasonally and shed their seeds before the arrival of summer when climatic conditions become more unfavourable throughout the desert. Medicinal purposes also account for another major usage of the plants; for example '' Harmal'' is used for indigestion and ''Kartuma'' is used to treat wounds. Other uses including thatching huts, building livestock shelters and creating household items such as baskets and dyes. The most commonly used species is the ''
Saccharum ''Saccharum'' is a genus of tall perennial plants of the broomsedge tribe within the grass family. The genus is widespread across tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate regions in Africa, Eurasia, Australia, the Americas, and assorted ocea ...
'' with its various uses in sheltering,
fodder Fodder (), also called provender (), is any agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such as cattle, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. "Fodder" refers particularly to food given to the animals (including ...
and making objects. Most sub-regions of the desert are dominated by one species of plants which is a notable feature of such deserts. The vegetation is also highly dependent on the seasonal rainfall patterns which determine the ability of species to re-establish in the next sufficiently wet
monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal osci ...
. Most plants that are grown are done so for the sole purpose of soil binding as this helps bind the sandy soil and fertilise it for future generations. Gram (
chickpea The chickpea or chick pea (''Cicer arietinum'') is an annual legume of the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. Its different types are variously known as gram" or Bengal gram, garbanzo or garbanzo bean, or Egyptian pea. Chickpea seeds are hi ...
) is the most successfully cultivated crop in the region's arid conditions and the desert accounts for the bulk of chickpea production in Pakistan. The Thal desert has also seen severe erosion to its natural vegetation as a result of anthropogenic activities such as human settlement and land cultivation, which led to
desertification Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become increasingly arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused b ...
. Much of the natural vegetation has been replaced replaced by perennial grasses, which may be a response to the anthropogenic pressure on the flora by human as well as animals.


Fauna

Livestock Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to anima ...
plays an important role towards the livelihood of the people in the region, serving as a relatively secure source of income as compared to unpredictable crop yields. The average herd size is 17 standard units and typically consist of goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, camels, donkeys, and mules. The desert's natural wildlife, inclusive of
deer Deer or true deer are hoofed ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups of deer are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the elk (wapiti), the red deer, and the fallow deer; and the Capreolinae, including the ...
,
jackal Jackals are medium-sized canids native to Africa and Eurasia. While the word "jackal" has historically been used for many canines of the subtribe canina, in modern use it most commonly refers to three species: the closely related black-backe ...
s,
parrot Parrots, also known as psittacines (), are birds of the roughly 398 species in 92 genera comprising the order Psittaciformes (), found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamilies: the Psittaco ...
s and wood-peckers, has seen drastic decline since the 1970s with current numbers nearing extinction. The common (desert) red fox, Kuhl's pipistrelle,
Indian desert cat The Asiatic wildcat (''Felis lybica ornata''), also known as the Asian steppe wildcat and the Indian desert cat, is an African wildcat subspecies that occurs from the eastern Caspian Sea north to Kazakhstan, into western India, western China ...
,
Chinkara The chinkara (''Gazella bennettii''), also known as the Indian gazelle, is a gazelle species native to Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. Taxonomy The following six subspecies are considered valid: * Deccan chinkara (''G. b. bennettii'') ...
,
Indian hare The Indian hare (''Lepus nigricollis''), also known as the black-naped hare, is a common species of hare native to the Indian subcontinent, and Java. Introductions It has been introduced to Madagascar, Comoro Islands, Andaman Islands, Irian Jay ...
, and Indian hairy-footed gerbil habitats are also present but in very small numbers as result of direct reductions and habitat changes over the last century. The desert is home to both resident and migratory species. The Thal
Game Reserve A game reserve (also known as a wildlife preserve or a game park) is a large area of land where wild animals live safely or are hunted in a controlled way for sport. If hunting is prohibited, a game reserve may be considered a nature reserve; ...
is estimated to host over 2.5 million birds from 55 different species. Bird populations peak around December–January, due to an increase in the population of migratory and winter visitor species. After midwinter, overall population begins to decline and reaches its minimum between May–June. Migratory birds include the
Peregrine Falcon The peregrine falcon (''Falco peregrinus''), also known as the peregrine, and historically as the duck hawk in North America, is a cosmopolitan bird of prey ( raptor) in the family Falconidae. A large, crow-sized falcon, it has a blue-grey ...
, Common quail,
Sky Lark The Eurasian skylark (''Alauda arvensis'') is a passerine bird in the lark family, Alaudidae. It is a widespread species found across Europe and the Palearctic with introduced populations in New Zealand, Australia and on the Hawaiian Islands. ...
, Rosy Starling, Yellow Wagtail and the Desert Warbler. These species breed in western
Siberia Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part o ...
and migrate to Pakistan during winter. The overall density of resident bird species is higher with the most abundant species being
Turdoides squamiceps The Arabian babbler (''Argya squamiceps'') is a passerine bird until recently placed in the genus '' Turdoides''. It is a communally nesting resident bird of arid scrub in the Middle East which lives together in relatively stable groups with stri ...
(Arabian babbler) and Lanius excubitor (Great grey shrike). The birds feed on the large variety of insects found in the desert. These include the
Cattle egret The cattle egret (''Bubulcus ibis'') is a cosmopolitan species of heron (family Ardeidae) found in the tropics, subtropics, and warm-temperate zones. It is the only member of the monotypic genus ''Bubulcus'', although some authorities regard ...
, Little green bee-eater, Persian bee-eater,
Indian roller The Indian roller (''Coracias benghalensis'') is a bird of the family Coraciidae. It is long with a wingspan of and weighs . The face and throat are pinkish, the head and back are brown, with blue on the rump and contrasting light and dark blu ...
and Golden backed woodpecker. Cultivated crops such as chickpeas,
wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeolog ...
,
maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn ( North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. ...
and
rice Rice is the seed of the grass species '' Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly '' Oryza glaberrima'' (African rice). The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera '' Zizania'' and ''Porteresia'', both wild and domestica ...
are also an important food source to the granivorous birds. Larger species such as the Laggar and Peregrine falcons also prey on
rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the Order (biology), order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are roden ...
s,
lizard Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic since it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia al ...
s and small birds found in the area.


History


The Greater Thal canal

The history of the Thal Canal Project dates back to 1873 when the project was first conceived for the whole of the Thal
Doab ''Doab'' () is a term used in South Asia Quote: "Originally and chiefly in South Asia: (the name of) a strip or narrow tract of land between two rivers; spec. (with) the area between the rivers Ganges and Jumna in northern India." for the tract ...
. The proposal to
irrigate Irrigation (also referred to as watering) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been develo ...
this area with water from the Indus River was repeatedly brought up for discussion in 1919, 1921, 1924, 1925, 1936 and in 1949. It was repeatedly shelved because of the argument that it would severely hurt water availability to the lower riparians. The project proposal came under discussion again in 1975 when the Executive Committee of the National Economic Council (ECNEC) refused to endorse the project. On August 16, 2001, Pakistani President
Pervez Musharraf General Pervez Musharraf ( ur, , Parvez Muśharraf; born 11 August 1943) is a former Pakistani politician and four-star general of the Pakistan Army who became the tenth president of Pakistan after the successful military takeover of t ...
inaugurated the 30-billion-rupee Greater Thal Canal project (GTC). The second phase of the Greater Thal Canal Phase project (Choubara Branch) was launched in 2020. This will bring around 300 000 acres of the desert land under irrigation.


Settlement of the Thal Desert

The partitioning of the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India ...
in 1947 resulted in the migration of over 15 million people and created a refugee problem for the then government. The Thal Settlement project arose as a solution to this issue with plans to settle a number of refugees into the sparsely populated Thal Desert. In July 1949, the Punjab Government  enacted a law for the
constitution A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When these princip ...
of a public corporation, the Thal Development Authority (TDA), which began its development operations the following year in 1950.Throughout its lifetime, the TDA initiated a number of projects including the Sheep Breeding Scheme in 1952, the Open Auction Scheme in 1954 and the Peasant Grant Scheme of 1955. The Peasant Grant Scheme, which was aimed at refugees and migrators from
India India, officially the Republic of India ( Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the ...
, offered a 15 acers incentive for settlement in the Thal desert under a number of varying conditions, one of which required the land to only be used for agricultural purposes. Over 110 villages were also established by the TDA over its lifespan which enabled the settlement of over 31377 families of refugees and migrants in the Thal Desert.Pakistan's Projects FERTILE FIELDS FROM DESERT (1952, February 26). ''Queensland Times (Ipswich, Qld. : 1909 - 1954)'', p. 3 (Daily). Retrieved April 27, 2021, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article124584454 Facilities such as schools and post offices were also provided by the TDA alongside the construction of peasant houses, huts, and cattle sheds. The TDA was dissolved in 1969 by the Government of Punjab. The years between 1953 and 1969 also saw the levelling of over 690 000 acres of the Thal Desert, the construction of over 2000 miles worth of main and link roads to connect the new villages and over 63 000 miles worth of water channels. However, development of the region with the canal project, settlement of people and reclamation of land for agricultural usages has also changed the
ecology Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overl ...
of the area. Grazing lands have diminished and the
biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic ('' genetic variability''), species ('' species diversity''), and ecosystem ('' ecosystem diversity' ...
of the area has also decreased.


Culture and society

The Thal desert is deficit in resources and infrastructure with very limited health services, schools, electricity, water and sanitation. Erratic rainfall patterns, frequent droughts and shifting sand dunes result in serious losses to farmers and have contributed to the widespread poverty in the area. The population lives in scattered settlements and most farmers own less than 5 acres of land, which is difficult to cultivate. Agriculture and livestock form the primary sources of livelihood with
gram flour Gram flour or kadala maavu is a pulse flour made from a variety of ground chickpea called Bengal gram or ''kaala chana''. It is a staple ingredient in the cuisine of the Indian subcontinent, including in Indian, Bangladeshi, Burmese, Nepali ...
being the main cash crop. Milk production is also a major source of income and for this reason, cows and buffaloes are raised more frequently than camels or goats. Livestock productivity is limited due to fodder shortages as a result of climatic fluctuations, limited availability of
veterinary Veterinary medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, management, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, disorder, and injury in animals. Along with this, it deals with animal rearing, husbandry, breeding, research on nutri ...
services and poor access to animal vaccinations. In cases of crop failure, livestock is often sold in order to improve financial standing. Skins from livestock such as sheep and camels are also sold for making leather goods whilst teeth and bones are utilised for objects such as buttons, jewellery, and decoration. Camels are also commonly used for transportation throughout the region. There are several tribes in the area including the Tiwana, Sial, Mammak, Bhachar, Baghoor, Rahdari, Jhammat peoples. Saraiki is the primary language spoken by locals however Punjabi is also widely used. Male education and literacy rates are comparatively higher as compared to females but overall, still some of the lowest in the province of Punjab. The most common occupations, in both men and women, consists of
shepherd A shepherd or sheepherder is a person who tends, herds, feeds, or guards flocks of sheep. ''Shepherd'' derives from Old English ''sceaphierde (''sceap'' 'sheep' + ''hierde'' ' herder'). ''Shepherding is one of the world's oldest occupations ...
s, farmed livestock caretakers and domestic livestock caretakers. Most villages do not have a single indoor toilet facility. Chronic stomach ailments are common due to the quality of water available. Females are also more vulnerable to health conditions, particularly those related to maternity as the nearest hospital capable of treatment is generally great distances away.


See also

*
Thar Desert The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Subcontinent that covers an area of and forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's 20th-largest desert, a ...
* Kharan Desert


References


External links

* {{Authority control Deserts of Pakistan Deserts and xeric shrublands Ecoregions of Pakistan Ergs Geography of Punjab, Pakistan Indomalayan ecoregions Geography of Pakistan Deserts