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''Tetraponera'' is a
genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
of ants in the
subfamily In biological classification, a subfamily (Latin: ', plural ') is an auxiliary (intermediate) taxonomic rank, next below family but more inclusive than genus. Standard nomenclature rules end botanical subfamily names with "-oideae", and zo ...
Pseudomyrmecinae that are commonly known as slender ants and are characterized by their arboreal nature and slender bodies. The 96 described
species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...
of ''Tetraponera'' all of which live in hollow structures of plants and trees, such as thorns or branches; these hosts are known as myrmecophytes. ''Tetraponera'' species are closely related to the New World genus of ants '' Pseudomyrmex'', but differ in their relationships with host plants.


Mutualisms and behaviour

''Tetraponera'' species are generally defined by the myrmecophytes they inhabit and the mutualistic relationship they share. These host plants always have hollow thorns or branches in which the
ant Ants are Eusociality, eusocial insects of the Family (biology), family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the Taxonomy (biology), order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from Vespoidea, vespoid wasp ancestors in the Cre ...
s can live and form a
colony A colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule, which rules the territory and its indigenous peoples separated from the foreign rulers, the colonizer, and their ''metropole'' (or "mother country"). This separated rule was often orga ...
. Also, the myrmecophytes provide energy rich food sources such as extrafloral nectar and/or food bodies. All ''Tetraponera'' species have gut
symbiont Symbiosis (Ancient Greek : living with, companionship < : together; and ''bíōsis'': living) is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction, between two organisms of different species. The two organisms, termed symbionts, can fo ...
s that allow them to digest amino acid-deficient food provided by their host plants; these gut bacteria are especially important for the species that only survive on the myrmecophyte-provided foods. All ''Tetraponera'' species provide protection for their host plants through aggressive nature towards other insects and trimming leaves/branches of neighbouring plants. Living in hollow structures of the plants allows the ants to detect vibrations when larger insects land on the plant, or workers on patrol visually detect smaller intruders. Once detected, sophisticated pheromone systems allow the ants to quickly outnumber and overpower any invaders. Most insect invaders are killed and discarded by ''Tetraponera'' workers such as caterpillars and
aphids Aphids are small sap-sucking insects in the Taxonomic rank, family Aphididae. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white Eriosomatinae, woolly ...
, but some are killed and consumed. The insects that take the most time and effort to kill are generally consumed; these are mostly katydids or leaf beetles. As well as assaulting and killing insects that attack their host plant, ''Tetraponera'' ants will attack any mammals that present a threat. Inflicting the mammals with painful stings will usually deter them from attacking the plant. In some arboreal ant species, not just ''Tetraponera'', a third partner in ant-myrmecophyte mutualisms is hemipteran trophobionts. These insects provide a possible third source of food for the ants, in return the ants feed and “nurture” the Hemiptera inside their colonies.


Distribution

''Tetraponera'' species are found commonly in the warmer regions of
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...
,
Asia Asia ( , ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which ...
, and
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
. Different species are associated with different plant species. The most common myrmecophytes for ''Tetraponera'' are acacias, but the wide variety of hosts for this genus include bamboos and lianas. ''Tetraponera'' ants trim neighbouring plants to prevent any intrusion of other ants or caterpillars from those plants and to reduce resource competition for their host. ''Tetraponera'' species only leave their myrmecophyte to start a new colony on a different host; a
queen Queen most commonly refers to: * Queen regnant, a female monarch of a kingdom * Queen consort, the wife of a reigning king * Queen (band), a British rock band Queen or QUEEN may also refer to: Monarchy * Queen dowager, the widow of a king * Q ...
and a number of workers leave the old host plant to allow the colony to continue to expand.


Lifecycle and castes

''Tetraponera'', like most ants, has one or a few queens that are the only females to reproduce in a colony. The sterile workers are all females that forage for food and defend the colony. Males are produced only during certain times of the year and disperse to mate with virgins queens from other colonies. Since ants are haplodiploid, they can control what sex their offspring will be; an unfertilised egg will become a male, while a fertilised egg will be female. This reliably restricts the production of male alates to the species' mating season, when the winged virgin queens and males fly from their home colonies to mate and start new colonies. The eggs produced by the queen hatch into
larvae A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect developmental biology, development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typical ...
which are cared for inside the colony, protected from any predators by the workers. The amount of care each female larva receives determines its fate as a worker or a new queen; all males are drones. When a new colony is formed, eggs are initially produced at a low rate, but this quickly increases in the second to fourth years, to ensure enough workers are produced to protect and provide for the growing colony.


Species

*'' T. aethiops'' Smith, 1877 *'' T. aitkenii'' (Forel, 1902) *'' T. allaborans'' (Walker, 1859) *'' T. amargina'' Xu & Chai, 2004 *'' T. ambigua'' (Emery, 1895) *'' T. andrei'' (Mayr, 1895) *'' T. anthracina'' (Santschi, 1910) *'' T. apiculata'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. atra'' Donisthorpe, 1949 *'' T. attenuata'' Smith, 1877 *'' T. avia'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. bifoveolata'' (Mayr, 1895) *'' T. binghami'' (Forel, 1902) *'' T. bita'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. brevis'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. buops'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. caffra'' (Santschi, 1914) *'' T. clypeata'' (Emery, 1886) *'' T. concava'' Xu & Chai, 2004 *'' T. conica'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. connectens'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. continua'' (Forel, 1907) *'' T. convexa'' Xu & Chai, 2004 *'' T. cortina'' Ward, 2022 *'' T. crassiuscula'' (Emery, 1900) *'' T. diana'' (Santschi, 1911) *'' T. difficilis'' (Emery, 1900) *'' T. dispar'' Ward, 2022 *'' T. elegans'' Ward, 2022 *'' T. emeryi'' (Forel, 1911) *'' T. erythraea'' (Emery, 1895) *†'' T. europaea'' Dlussky, 2009 *'' T. exactor'' Ward, 2022 *'' T. exasciata'' (Forel, 1892) *'' T. extenuata'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. fictrix'' (Forel, 1897) *'' T. furcata'' Xu & Chai, 2004 *'' T. furtiva'' Ward, 2022 *'' T. gerdae'' (Stitz, 1911) *'' T. grandidieri'' (Forel, 1891) *†'' T. groehni'' Dlussky, 2009 *'' T. hespera'' Ward, 2009 *'' T. hirsuta'' Ward, 2009 *'' T. hysterica'' (Forel, 1892) *'' T. inermis'' Ward, 2009 *'' T. insularis'' Ward, 2022 *'' T. inversinodis'' Ward, 2001 *†'' T. klebsi'' (Wheeler, 1915) *'' T. kosi'' Ward, 2022 *†'' T. lacrimarum'' (Wheeler, 1915) *'' T. laeviceps'' (Smith, 1859) *'' T. latifrons'' (Emery, 1912) *'' T. liengmei'' (Forel, 1894) *'' T. longula'' (Emery, 1895) *'' T. manangotra'' Ward, 2009 *'' T. mandibularis'' (Emery, 1895) *'' T. mayri'' (Forel, 1901) *'' T. merita'' Ward, 2009 *'' T. microcarpa'' Wu & Wang, 1990 *'' T. mimula'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. mocquerysi'' (André, 1890) *'' T. modesta'' (Smith, 1860) *'' T. morondaviensis'' (Forel, 1891) *'' T. natalensis'' (Smith, 1858) *'' T. nigra'' (Jerdon, 1851) *'' T. nitida'' (Smith, 1860) *'' T. nixa'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. nodosa'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. notabilis'' Ward, 2001 *†'' T. ocellata'' (Mayr, 1868) *†'' T. oligocenica'' (Théobald, 1937) *'' T. ophtalmica'' (Emery, 1912) *'' T. parops'' Ward, 2006 *'' T. pedana'' Ward, 2022 *'' T. penzigi'' (Mayr, 1907) *'' T. periyarensis'' Bharti & Akbar, 2014 *'' T. perlonga'' Santschi, 1928 *'' T. phragmatica'' Ward, 2006 *'' T. pilosa'' (Smith, 1858) *'' T. polita'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. protensa'' Xu & Chai, 2004 *'' T. pumila'' Ward, 2022 *'' T. punctulata'' Smith, 1877 *'' T. rakotonis'' (Forel, 1891) *'' T. redacta'' Ward, 2022 *'' T. rotula'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. rufonigra'' (Jerdon, 1851) *'' T. sahlbergii'' (Forel, 1887) *'' T. schulthessi'' (Santschi, 1915) *'' T. setosa'' Ward, 2022 *†'' T. simplex'' (Mayr, 1868) *'' T. tessmanni'' (Stitz, 1910) *'' T. tucurua'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. variegata'' (Forel, 1895) *'' T. vivax'' Ward, 2001 *'' T. volucris'' Ward, 2001


References

* Borm, S.V., A. Buschinger, J. J. Boomsma and J. Billen. 2002. Tetraponera ants have gut symbionts related to nitrogen-fixing root-nodule bacteria. Biological Sciences. 269:2023-2027. * Ward, P.S. 2001. Taxonomy, phylogeny and biogeography of the ant genus Tetraponera (Hymenoptera:Formicidae) in the Oriental and Australian regions Invertebrate Taxonomy. 15:589:665. * Dejean, A., J. Orivel and C. Djieto-Lordon. 2008. The plant ant Tetraponera aethiops (Pseudomyrmecinae) protects its host myrmecophyte Barteria fistulosa (Passifloraceae) through aggressiveness and predation. 93:63-69. * Australian Biological Resources and Study: Australian Faunal Directory. https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Tetraponera


External links

* * {{Taxonbar, from=Q771402 Pseudomyrmecinae Ant genera