Tamambo Language

Tamambo, or Malo, is an Oceanic language spoken by 4,000 people on Malo and nearby islands in Vanuatu.

Phonology

Vowels

become respectively when unstressed and before another vowel. may also become for some speakers.

Consonants

The prenasalized postalveolar stop is often affricated and voiceless, i.e. .

Younger speakers often realize as initially and medially, while is often replaced by .

is usually realized as initially, but some speakers use . Medially, it may be pronounced as any of .

Writing system

Few speakers of Tamambo are literate, and there is no standard orthography. Spelling conventions used include:

Pronouns and person markers

In Tamambo, personal pronouns distinguish between first, second, and third person. There is an inclusive and exclusive marking on the first-person plural and gender is not marked. There are four classes of pronouns, which is not uncommon in other Austronesian languages:
*Independent pronouns
*Subject pronouns
*Object pronouns
*Possessive pronouns.

Independent pronouns

Independent pronouns behave grammatically similarly to other NPs in that they can occur in the same slot as a subject NP, functioning as the head of a NP. However, in regular discourse, they are not used a great deal due to the obligatory nature of cross-referencing subject pronouns. Use of independent pronouns is often seen as unnecessary and unusual except in the following situations:
*Indicate person and number of conjoint NP
*Introduce new referent
*Reintroduce referent
*Emphasise participation of known referent

Indicating person and number of conjoint NP

In the instance where two NPs are joined as a single subject, the independent pronoun reflects the number of the conjoint NP:

and

Thus, merging the two above clauses into one, the independent pronoun must change to reflect total number of subjects:

Introducing a new referent

When a new referent is introduced into the discourse, the independent pronoun is used. In this case, ''kamam'':

Reintroduction of referent

In this example, the IP ''hinda'' in the second sentence is used to refer back to ''tahasi'' in the first sentence.

Emphasis on participation of known subject

According to Jauncey, this is the most common use of the IP. Comparing the two examples, the latter placing the emphasis on the subject:

and

Subject pronouns

Subject pronouns are an obligatory component of a verbal phrase, indicating the person and number of the NP. They can either co-occur with the NP or independent in the subject slot, or exist without if the subject has been deleted through ellipsis or previously known context.

Object pronouns

Object pronouns are very similar looking to independent pronouns, appearing to be abbreviations of the independent pronoun as seen in the pronoun paradigm above. Object pronouns behave similarly to the object NP, occurring in the same syntactic slot, however only one or the other is used, both cannot be used simultaneously as an object argument – which is unusual in Oceanic languages as many languages have obligatory object pronominal cross-referencing on the verb agreeing with NP object.

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns substitute for NP possessor, suffixing to the possessed noun in direct possessive constructions or to one the four possessive classifiers in indirect constructions.

Direct possession

Indirect possession

Negation

Negation in Tamambo involves the use of a negative particle; negative verb and negative aspectuals (semantics of time) to change positive constructions into negative ones.

Negation and the VP

The negative particle -''te'' and negative aspectual ''tele'' 'not yet' and ''lete'' 'never' can appear in the same slot of the Verb Phrase, illustrated below:

Both the negative aspectuals appear to be derived from the tense-aspect marker ''le'' and the negative particle -''te''. All the optional modifiers in the VP are mutually exclusive thus; the negative morphemes allow no modifiers between them and the head of the VP.

Negative particle ''-te''

The negative particle -''te'' which expresses negative polarity on the verb is a bound morpheme, meaning it must be attached to the subject pronominal clitic. The negative particle also occurs immediately before the verb noted in example 05 Furthermore, example 05demonstrates what Jauncey terms a 'negative progressive'; a way of expressing the negative in the present tense such as 'he's not doing it' using the negative particle -''te''.

Negative aspectuals

The negative aspectuals are used to refer to different aspects of time. The aspectual ''lete'' 'never' is used to refer to event times that are prior to speech time noted in example 07and 00

The negative aspectual ''tele'' 'not yet' is used only where the events are referring to an event time prior to or simultaneous with speech time noted in example 06and 03

Negation and modality

In Tamambo, modality can be expressed through the future marker –''mbo'' and the two 3SG subject pronouns, ''mo'' (realis) and ''a'' (irrealis). In Tamambo realis is 'the grammatical or lexical marking of an event time or situation that has happened (or not) or is happening (or not) relative to speech time' and irrealis refers to 'the grammatical or lexical marking of an event time or situation that may have happened, or that may or may not happen in the future'. In Tamambo, the negative particle -''te'' and aspectual ''lete'' can be used in conjunction with the 3SG irrealis ''a'' to express that a situation or action is not known to have happened. This is used because the negative markers cannot occur next to the future marker ''–mbo,'' however they can occur separately in the same construction evident in example 01containing ''lete.''

In Tamambo, only the 3SG preverbal subject form has ''a'' irrealis, thus when -''te'' is used with other preverbal subject pronouns, the time of event can be ambiguous, and phrases must be understood from context and other lexemes. For example, 8ref name=":1" /> illustrates the various interpretations one phrase may have.

Negative verb ''tete''

The negative verb ''tete'' is a part of Tamambo's closed subset of intransitive verbs, meaning that it has grammatical limitations. For example, the verb ''tete'' can only be used in conjunction with the 3SG preverbal subject pronominal clitic. The negative verb ''tete'' can function with a valency of zero or one. Valency refers to the number of syntactic arguments a verb can have.

Zero Valency

The most common use of the verb ''tete'' is illustrated in example 9 where the verb has zero valency.

The 3SG pronoun's of ''a'' (irrealis) and ''mo'' (realis) are used in conjunction with ''tete'' to respond to varying questions depending on whether the answer is certain or not. Example 0ref name=":2" /> illustrates the use of ''a'' and ''tete'' in a construction to answer a question where the answer is not certain.

However, if the answer is certain than ''mo'' and ''tete'' are used highlighted in example 1

Valency of one

If ''tete'' functions with a valency of one, then the intransitive subject must precede the verb similar to a prototypical verb phrase. In this situation, 3SG marking can only represent both the singular and plural, highlighted in example 5

''Tete'' can also function with an 'existential meaning' illustrated in example 2 to express there was 'no one/no people'.

Ambient serial verb constructions

The negative verb ''tete'' can also be used following a verb in an ambient serial verb construction. In Tamambo, a serial verb construction is defined by Jauncey as 'a sequence of two or more verbs that combine to function as a single predicate'. Furthermore, the term ambient in this verb construction refers to the phenomena when a verb, which follows a transitive or intransitive verb, makes a predication concerning the previous event rather than the participant. When the negative ''tete'' verb is used in an ambient serial verb construction, ''tete'' makes a negative predication regarding the event expressed by the previous verb highlighted in example 4and 5 Furthermore, in this instance it is ungrammatical to insert other words between the negative verb and the previous verb.

Negation and realis conditional sentences

Negative realis conditional sentences express an idea that something will happen if the condition is ''not'' met, such as an imperative or warning. The sentence outlines the conditions, and includes an 'otherwise' or 'if not' component. The condition and the 'if not' (bolded) component occur together before the main clause illustrated in example 24

Demonstratives

Tamambo distinguishes between demonstrative pronouns, demonstrative adverbs and demonstrative modifiers.

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns occur in core argument slots, where they occur next to the predicate, can be relativised and can be fronted. These features distinguish them from demonstrative modifiers and demonstrative adverbs which may take the same form.Jauncey (1997: 108) Demonstrative pronouns in Tamambo include pronouns used for spatial deixis, anaphoric reference and emphatic reference. They do not change when referring to animate or inanimate entities.

Spatial deictics

Demonstrative pronouns are organised into a two-way framework, which is based on the distance relative to the speaker and the addressee. While it is common for Oceanic languages to have a distinction based on distance from the speaker, the two-way organisation is unusual for Oceanic languages, where demonstratives usually have a three-way distinction.Ross (1988: 177) These pronouns refer to entities which both the speaker and the addressee can see.

= ''niani''

=
The pronoun ''niani'' 'this one' refers to an entity which is near the speaker.

= ''niala''

=
The pronoun ''niala'' 'that one over there' refers to an entity that is further away from both the speaker and the addressee.

''Nirala'', which translates to 'those ones over there', is used in colloquial speech as a plural form of ''niala'' .

Anaphoric reference

Tamambo, like many other Oceanic languages and possibly Proto-Oceanic, includes a demonstrative system which functions to reference previous discourse. Tamambo includes two pronouns used for anaphora, ''mwende'' and ''mwe'', which are only used for anaphora without any marking for person or distance, a common feature of Oceanic languages.

= ''mwende''

=
The pronoun ''mwende'' 'the particular one, the particular ones' can function as either a proform or a noun phrase. As shown in example (3) below, ''mwende'' is used for a singular noun, specifying which particular knife is the better one, whereas in example (4), the same pronoun, ''mwende'', is referring to multiple 'ones'.

Emphatic reference

Tamambo includes the demonstrative pronoun, ''niaro'', used for emphasis, as shown in example (5).Jauncey (1997: 110)

Demonstrative adverbs

Spatial modifiers

Spatial modifier adverbs in Tamambo are sentential, and cannot occur within the proposition. There are three sets of spatial modifiers, which are shown in the table below. These three sets of spatial modifiers can be organised into three groups depending on the distance from the speaker, a trait common to demonstratives in Oceanic languages. The following table shows the three sets of spatial modifiers in Tamambo. In this arrangement by Kaufman, the formatives -''ni'', -''e'', and -''la'' can be seen to correlate with distance from the speaker.Kaufman (2013: 280)

= ''aien'' and ''aie''

=
These adverbs begin with ''ai''-, which suggests that they are related to a locative proform in Proto-Oceanic, *ai-.Jauncey (1997: 93) ''Aien'' can mean either 'in this place', referring to a location, as shown in example (6), or used for anaphoric reference, where it can mean 'at this stage of events', as shown in example (7). ''Aien'' refers to location in place or time more generally than another spatial modifier, ''roni''.

''Aie'' refers to 'another place which is not visible', or may be used for a place which has already been introduced earlier in conversation, as shown in example (8).

= ''roni'' and ''rola''

=
''Roni'' is used to refer to a place visible to both the speaker and the listener, and is more specific than ''aien''. It translates to 'right here close to me'.

''Rola'' is an old word for 'there' which is rarely used, and is said to have come from the east. In her research, Jauncey reports no examples of ''rola'' being used in narrative or conversation but provides the example below.

= ''niani'', ''niae'' and ''niala''

=
These adverbs share the same forms as demonstrative pronouns and modifiers, but they occur at different parts of the sentence and perform different functions. These adverbs refer to places which are visible and in addition, the speaker will point.Jauncey (1997: 94) ''Niala'' and ''niani'' are not used for anaphoric reference. The ''nia''- component of this set of demonstratives suggests a relationship to the Proto-Austronesian proximate demonstrative, which contains *ni. In addition, the pointing gesture which commonly accompanies the adverbs ''niani'', ''niae'' and ''niala'' can be derived from the demonstrative function of the Proto-Austronesian component *ni.Kaufman (2013: 281)

''Niani'' translates to 'here', where the referenced entity is close to the speaker, as shown in example (11).

''Niae'' translates to 'there near you', where the referenced entity is close to the addressee, shown in example (12) below.

''Niala'' translates as 'there' or 'over there', and refers to a place that can be seen or a close place that cannot be seen.

Demonstrative modifiers

Demonstrative modifiers are a non-obligatory component of the noun phrase in Tamambo. In Tamambo, demonstrative modifiers function within the noun phrase, after the head noun to modify it. In languages spoken in Vanuatu, and Oceanic languages more generally,Ross (1988: 179) the demonstrative commonly follows the head noun. In Proto-Oceanic, this also seems to be the case for adnominal demonstratives. Demonstrative modifiers in Tamambo include spatial reference, anaphoric reference and emphatic reference uses.

Spatial reference

These demonstratives have a three-way distinction, based on distance relative to the speaker.Jauncey (1997: 208) They can occur following the head directly, as shown in example (14), or follow a descriptive adjective, as shown in example (15). The same forms are used as demonstrative pronouns, however ''niae'' is not used as a pronoun. The modifiers are the same for singular and plural nouns.

= ''niani''

=
''Niani'' translates to 'this' or 'these' and references something close to the speaker.

In example (14), ''niani'' is modifying ''mwende'', the demonstrative pronoun, which is the head.

In this example, the demonstrative modifier ''niani'' follows directly after the descriptive adjective ''tawera'', which in turn follows the head noun ''jara.''

= ''niae''

=
''Niae'' refers to something that is close to the addressee, and translates to 'that' or 'those'.

In example (16), the demonstrative modifier ''niani'' directly follows the after the noun ''samburu.''

= ''niala''

=
''Niala'' references something that is distant from both the speaker and the addressee.

In example (17), the demonstrative modifier ''niala'' follows directly after the first ''tamalohi'', which is the person the speaker is referring to.

Anaphoric referential markers

Tamambo includes two anaphoric referential modifiers, rindi and mwende. Both are used posthead.Jauncey (1997: 210)

= ''rindi''

=
''Rindi'' indicates a noun phrase which has been already introduced in either a preceding clause or earlier string of narrative or conversation, and limits the reference of an entity that has already been introduced.

In example (18), ''vavine'' has already been introduced at an earlier stage of the conversation, therefore ''rindi'' is used directly following the noun ''vavine'' when it is reintroduced.

= ''mwende''

=
''Mwende'' is more specific than ''rindi'' and indicates a referent which is definitely known.

The demonstrative modifier ''mwende'' follows the ''tamalohi'', the noun.

Emphatic reference modifier

''Niaro'' is the only emphatic reference modifier, which can also only occur posthead as shown in example (20).

''Niaro'' can occur with the anaphoric referential modifier ''rindi'', and in that circumstance, ''rindi'' is shortened to ''ri,'' as shown in example (21) below''.'' Both modifiers follow after the noun ''Kastom'', with the anaphoric reference marker preceding the emphatic reference modifier.

Abbreviations

TA:tense-aspect marker
REP:repeating action
LINK:possessive linker
REF:prior reference made

References

External links

* Materials on Malo are included in the open access Arthur Capell collections
AC1
an
AC2
held by Paradisec.

Bibliography

* Dryer, M. (2013). Feature 88A: Order of Demonstrative and Noun. Retrieved 28 March 2021, from https://wals.info/feature/88A#2/16.3/152.9
*
*
*
*Kaufman, Daniel. (2013) “Tamambo, a Language of Malo, Vanuatu by Dorothy G. Jauncey (Review).” ''Oceanic Linguistics'', 52(1): 277–290. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43286771
*
*Ross, Malcolm. (2004) Demonstratives, local nouns and directionals in Oceanic languages: a diachronic perspective, in Gunter Senft (ed.), ''Deixis and demonstratives in Oceanic Languages'', Pacific Linguistics, Canberra, pp. 175 - 204

{{Austronesian languages

Espiritu Santo languages
Languages of Vanuatu