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The Syrian Salvation Government (SSG) was a '' de facto'' unrecognized
quasi-state A quasi-state (sometimes referred to as a state-like entity or formatively a proto-state) is a political entity that does not represent a fully autonomous sovereign state with its own institutions. The precise definition of ''quasi-state'' in po ...
in
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
formed on 2 November 2017 by Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and other opposition groups during the Syrian civil war. It controlled much of northwest Syria and had an estimated population of over 4,000,000 in 2023. Its ''de facto'' capital was
Idlib Idlib (, ; also spelt Idleb or Edlib) is a city in northwestern Syria, and is the capital of the Idlib Governorate. It has an elevation of nearly above sea level, and is southwest of Aleppo. It is located near the border with Turkey. History ...
. After the December 2024 fall of Damascus, the final prime minister of Ba'athist Syria, Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali, transferred power in Syria to SSG Prime Minister Mohammed al-Bashir, with all ministers from the Syrian Salvation Government transferring to the same posts in the new caretaker government of Syria. The SSG was governed as an
authoritarian Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and ...
technocratic
Islamic state The Islamic State (IS), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Daesh, is a transnational Salafi jihadism, Salafi jihadist organization and unrecognized quasi-state. IS ...
with two branches: the legislative General Shura Council, headed by a president, and the executive branch, headed by a prime minister. Although HTS declared its independence from the SSG, the SSG was widely regarded as its civilian administration, although it maintained a degree of operational autonomy from the group. It has been described as the state-building project of HTS leader Ahmed al-Sharaa.


Background

Prior to the formation of the SSG in 2017,
Idlib Governorate Idlib Governorate ( / ALA-LC: ''Muḥāfaẓat Idlib'') is one of the 14 governorates of Syria. It is situated in northwestern Syria, bordering Turkey's Hatay province to the north, Aleppo Governorate to the east, Hama Governorate to the sou ...
was governed by a patchwork of armed opposition groups, co-operatively-run local councils and independent organizations nominally under the authority of the opposition
Syrian Interim Government The Syrian Interim Government (Arabic: الحكومة السورية المؤقتة; ''Ḥukūmat as-Sūriyya al-Muwaqqata'') was a government-in-exile and later a quasi-state in Syria formed on 18 March 2013 by the National Coalition of Syria ...
(SIG). As Syrian government offensives encroached on the territory, civil initiatives to create a unified governing body were increasingly undertaken but failed due to a lack of trust and differences of opinion between stakeholders. HTS and its predecessor organizations, the
al-Qaeda , image = Flag of Jihad.svg , caption = Jihadist flag, Flag used by various al-Qaeda factions , founder = Osama bin Laden{{Assassinated, Killing of Osama bin Laden , leaders = {{Plainlist, * Osama bin Lad ...
franchise
al-Nusra Front Al-Nusra Front or Jabhat al-Nusra or Jabhat Nusrat Ahl al-Sham, also known as Front for the Conquest of the Levant, and also later known as Jabhat Fatah al-Sham was a Salafi-jihadist organization that fought against Ba'athist Syria, Ba'athist ...
and Jabhat Fatah al-Sham, have long maintained a presence in Idlib. The al-Nusra Front was not particularly interested in the minutiae of governance, leaving local councils to govern themselves. However, in 2013, Ahmed al-Sharaa (Abu Mohammed al-Julani) — then the ''emir'' of al-Nusra — expressed his belief that the popular support required to establish an Islamic emirate could only be obtained through provision of public goods and services, laying the theoretical groundwork for increased involvement in governance. Initially, HTS shared its governing responsibilities with other armed groups, but this became increasingly unilateral as al-Sharaa sought to impose his group's hegemony over the province. HTS engaged in fighting against rival armed groups in the region, such as Ahrar al-Sham, the Syrian National Army and the local affiliate of the
Islamic State The Islamic State (IS), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Daesh, is a transnational Salafi jihadism, Salafi jihadist organization and unrecognized quasi-state. IS ...
, Liwa al-Aqsa. During major offensives in January–March 2017 and July 2017, HTS expelled or subjugated these groups, leaving it as the pre-eminent military power in the province.


History

The General Syrian Conference, held in Idlib in September 2017, was a continuation of the Civil Administration Initiative in opposition-controlled areas, held at the end of August 2017 in
Idlib Idlib (, ; also spelt Idleb or Edlib) is a city in northwestern Syria, and is the capital of the Idlib Governorate. It has an elevation of nearly above sea level, and is southwest of Aleppo. It is located near the border with Turkey. History ...
. At its conclusion on 11 September 2017, the Conference formed a constituent body named the General Shura Council, headed by president Bassam al-Sahyouni, and appointed a prime minister. The Syrian Interim Government and the
Syrian Democratic Forces The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) is a Kurds in Syria, Kurdish-led coalition of U.S.-backed Left-wing politics, left-wing ethnic militias and rebel groups, and serves as the official military wing of the Democratic Autonomous Administration ...
in Qamishli and Afrin rejected the results of the conference. Conference participants agreed upon "
Islamic law Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, intan ...
as the only source of legislation", "the need to preserve the identity of the Syrian Muslim people", "the overthrow of the illegal regime with all its symbols and pillars and holding it accountable for its committed crimes, as well as liberating the Syrian territory from all the occupying forces, extending security and spreading justice in the liberated areas". The move was seen as part of an attempt by HTS to impose its control on the region. Riad al-Asaad's attendance at the conference was controversial. Riad al-Asaad said that "HTS has previously declared that it will be dissolve itself, which is an external and internal demand", and that HTS "did not attend the conference and we did not communicate with them after it ended, either". However, the Hawar Kilis Operations Room, part of the Syrian National Army, condemned Riad al-Asaad and accused him of conspiring with al-Qaeda. In early November 2017, the General Conference formed the SSG. There followed weeks of conflict between the new government and the Syrian Interim Government (SIG), with reports of HTS unilaterally disbanding several SIG-supported local councils across northwestern Syria. Mohammed al-Sheikh was initially appointed as prime minister, with Riad al-Asaad serving as deputy prime minister for military affairs alongside eleven other ministers. Al-Sheikh announced the formation of four commissions: Inspection Authority, Prisoners and Missing Persons Affairs, Planning and Statistics Authority, and the Commission of Trade Unions. On 12 December 2017, the SSG issued a warning that called for the SIG to evacuate their offices from opposition-controlled areas in 72 hours. There were reports that some SIG-run local councils had already been closed and replaced by SSG-loyal alternatives, but others said they would not vacate their offices. On 6 January 2018, the SSG seized control of the SIG-run Free Aleppo University and closed several faculties in al-Dana and Sarmada, north of Idlib, where almost 4,000 students studied. This resulted in protests by students and lecturers of the university against the group. On 15 August 2018, the SSG's Founding Body accepted the resignation of Mohammed al-Sheikh after the kidnapping of a prominent health director. Although the director was ransomed for US$100,000, al-Sheikh had promised to resign if the Ministry of Interior failed to apprehend the captors within 24 hours. On 18 August 2018, the Founding Body instructed Fawaz Hilal to form a new government with the deputy prime minister, Mohammed Jamal Shahoud, leading in the interim. The SSG's Constitution Drafting Assembly appointed Fawaz Hilal as prime minister, alongside nine cabinet ministers, on 10 December 2018. Hilal and much of his cabinet maintained close ties with HTS. During his term, the Ministry of Economy was merged with the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Housing and Reconstruction was merged with the Ministry of Local Administration and Services. During a government offensive on Idlib in May 2019, Hilal called upon
Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...
to support the opposition. Tax increases, rising commodity prices and accusations that the SSG was establishing monopolies on key goods such as fuel led to protests between October and November 2019, with demonstrators chanting slogans against the SSG and Ahmed al-Sharaa. After residents of Kafr Takharim refused to pay a new tax on olive oil and expelled SSG officials, HTS besieged and bombed the town, killing 5. Hilal and his cabinet resigned shortly afterwards, leading to the Shura Council asking Ali Keda, Deputy Minister of the Interior for Administrative Affairs and Public Relations, to form a new government. On 18 November 2019, Keda was elected prime minister by the council, winning 65% of the vote. However, some activists said the reshuffle was merely "changing faces". On 23 March 2020, the SSG created an emergency committee to coordinate its response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Syria. Measures taken by the SSG to prevent the spread of COVID-19 included suspending
Friday prayer Friday prayer, or congregational prayer (), is the meeting together of Muslims for communal prayer and service at midday every Friday. In Islam, the day itself is called ''Yawm al-Jum'ah'' (shortened to ''Jum'ah''), which translated from Arabic me ...
s, shutting down schools and markets and opening quarantine centres in Jisr al-Shughur, Sarmada and Kafr Karmin. However, these efforts were undermined by hardliners from HTS and al-Qaeda's Syrian branch, Hurras al-Din, that continued to pray and hold sermons in mosques without
social distancing In public health, social distancing, also called physical distancing, (NB. Regula Venske is president of the PEN Centre Germany.) is a set of non-pharmaceutical interventions or measures intended to prevent the spread of a contagious dise ...
. The SSG possessed limited resources to deal with a large outbreak of
COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious disease caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. In January 2020, the disease spread worldwide, resulting in the COVID-19 pandemic. The symptoms of COVID‑19 can vary but often include fever ...
, with only 107
ventilator A ventilator is a type of breathing apparatus, a class of medical technology that provides mechanical ventilation by moving breathable air into and out of the lungs, to deliver breaths to a patient who is physically unable to breathe, or breathi ...
s and 243 intensive care unit beds at its disposal. On 7 April 2020, Bassam al-Sahyouni, president of the General Shura Council, resigned. Sources told '' Enab Baladi'' that his resignation was in response to attempts by HTS to interfere in the council's activities. On 24 April 2020, the Council elected Mustafa al-Mousa, a pharmacist who previously headed its health committee, as his successor. In May 2020, rapid depreciation of the
Syrian pound The Syrian pound or lira (; abbreviation: LS or SP in Latin alphabet, Latin, ل.س in Arabic script, Arabic, historically also Pound sign, £S, and £Syr; ISO 4217, ISO code: SYP) is the currency of Syria. It is issued by the Central Bank of S ...
triggered by the US Government's Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act prompted the SSG to replace it with the
Turkish lira The lira (; Currency sign, sign: Turkish lira sign, ₺; ISO 4217, ISO 4217 code: TRY; abbreviation: TL) is the official currency of Turkey. It is also legal tender in the ''de facto'' state of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. One lira i ...
in its administered territories. On 1 December 2020, Ali Keda was re-elected as prime minister for another term by the General Shura Council, receiving 81% of the vote. The appointment was criticized by opposition activists, who likened it to elections in territories controlled by the Ba'athist regime. In May 2023,
Rojava Rojava may refer to: * Syrian Kurdistan, also known as Rojava, the geographical region where Kurds historically settled within present-day Syria * Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria The Democratic Autonomous Administ ...
and SSG announced separate proposals to host millions of Syrian refugees stranded across the neighboring countries, following
Arab League The Arab League (, ' ), officially the League of Arab States (, '), is a regional organization in the Arab world. The Arab League was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945, initially with seven members: Kingdom of Egypt, Egypt, Kingdom of Iraq, ...
's readmission of the Assad government. In his speech during the
Eid al-Adha Eid al-Adha () is the second of the two main festivals in Islam alongside Eid al-Fitr. It falls on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijja, the twelfth and final month of the Islamic calendar. Celebrations and observances are generally carried forward to the ...
celebrations in July 2022, Ahmed al-Sharaa described the SSG as "an important stage in the history of the Syrian revolution. It is a transition from the chaotic situation in which the liberated areas were toward organization." After formal diplomatic talks in July 2023, the SSG concluded an agreement with AANES to begin trading fuel supplies between
Rojava Rojava may refer to: * Syrian Kurdistan, also known as Rojava, the geographical region where Kurds historically settled within present-day Syria * Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria The Democratic Autonomous Administ ...
and Idlib. The meetings had been conducted amid growing tensions between Turkey and SDF, and SDF's intention to deploy HTS as a check on the growing Turkish influence in northern Syria. For their part, the SSG proposed joint counter-terrorism efforts alongside SDF. The talks also involved negotiations on political arrangements, such as the prospects for a joint SSG-Rojava civil administration in the event of potential expulsion of SNA forces from northern Syria. In July 2023, the SSG launched "Syria Phone", the first communication and internet services company in Idlib. The state-owned company announced that it would provide "cellular calls,
SMS Short Message Service, commonly abbreviated as SMS, is a text messaging service component of most telephone, Internet and mobile device systems. It uses standardized communication protocols that let mobile phones exchange short text messages, t ...
, 4G and video calls." On January 13, 2024, the Shura Council elected Minister of Development and Humanitarian Affairs Mohammed al-Bashir as prime minister, succeeding Ali Keda. His election platform focused on
e-government E-government (known for electronic government) involves utilizing technology devices, such as computers and the Internet, for faster means of delivering public services to citizens and other persons in a country or region. E-government offer ...
and government automation. In March 2024, the Ministry of Interior said it would form a three-judge panel 'security court' for the families of detainees following demonstrations in Idlib due to the death of military personnel in prison and dissatisfaction at HTS influence. The Ministry of Interior also announced an amnesty for detainees "under certain conditions and exceptions" and established a 'General Security Administration' under its purview. In November 2024, HTS-led rebel groups launched the Syrian opposition offensives, capturing
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
city and bringing it under the control of the SSG. The SSG reactivated its inter-ministerial emergency response committee to coordinate its expansion into the new territories. The committee prepared tents for new IDPs displaced by bombing, coordinated the transfer of 100,000 loaves of bread from Idlib's bakeries to Aleppo city, and dispatched rubble removal and street cleaning teams. By December 3, the SSG had opened several government institutions in Aleppo city, began garbage collection, and restarted water and electricity services, it had also resumed traffic control duties and according to ''
Reuters Reuters ( ) is a news agency owned by Thomson Reuters. It employs around 2,500 journalists and 600 photojournalists in about 200 locations worldwide writing in 16 languages. Reuters is one of the largest news agencies in the world. The agency ...
'', "internet coverage has improved as a rebel-linked telecoms network (Syria Phone) has expanded its reach". Although the Syrian Pound has continued to devalue from 15,000 to ~22,000 per USD. HTS Emir al-Julani said that governance duties would be transferred to a "transitional body" in the city rather than the Salvation Government and would withdraw fighters. Dareen Khalifa of the
International Crisis Group The International Crisis Group (ICG; also known as the Crisis Group) is a global non-profit, non-governmental organisation founded in 1995. It is a think tank, used by policymakers and academics, conducting research and analysis on global crises. ...
in contract with Ahmed al-Sharaa said this was to avoid restrictions on international aid coming into the city due to HTS' terrorist designation. During the offensive, drones dropped SSG leaflets on government positions which exhorted troops to desert or defect and contained contact details for the SSG's "Center for Safety and Defection". The SSG offered amnesty to all surrendering government forces who remained in Aleppo after its capture. Following the overthrow of the Assad regime and the establishment of a new, nationwide
caretaker government A caretaker government, also known as a caretaker regime, is a temporary ''ad hoc'' government that performs some governmental duties and functions in a country until a regular government is elected or formed. Depending on specific practice, it co ...
, most incumbent ministers in the SSG retained their posts in the new government.


Government and politics

The SSG has been described as technocratic and "non-ideological" in nature. Many of its positions were occupied by members of the educated urban elite attempting to regain influence after the end of direct governance by armed opposition groups, particularly businessmen and conservative revolutionary activists.


Legislature

The General Shura Council is the legislative body of the SSG. It is responsible for electing a prime minister and approving ministerial appointments, drafting laws and presenting them for implementation to the executive branch, and ratifying the executive's plans. The council is charged with forming specialized committees which oversee and scrutinize the work of the executive. The council is composed of representatives of the various "segments" of society; each elects 15 members to the council. These segments include trade unions, tribes, internally displaced people and local residents. Candidates for Council elections are pre-selected and women are not permitted to vote. In April 2024, the council announced the selection of an eight-member Higher Election Committee to determine a new electoral process and delineate electoral districts for future elections. The committee is reportedly considering giving representation to women, local councils, minorities, and the military.


Executive

The prime minister is elected by the Shura Council. Candidates for prime minister are nominated by council members; a minimum of 10 members must support a nomination for it to advance to the voting stage. In the event only one candidate continues to the voting stage, they must obtain two-thirds of Council's vote to be elected; otherwise, the candidate with the most votes wins. Once elected, the prime minister must present his cabinet to the council for approval within 30 days. Prime ministers are elected for one year terms: the first term is a "trial year", after which the Council may elect them for second and third terms. Prospective prime ministerial candidates must be Syrian, hold a university degree, be married to a Syrian, not be convicted of a crime, have a "good reputation" and possess a "revolutionary history". Women hold few positions in the SSG's government, being confined to the Women's Office. As of July 2024, female leadership was absent from 10 of the SSG's 11 ministries, and no woman had ever been granted a ministerial portfolio.


List of prime ministers


Ministries

The SSG consists of eleven ministries, under each of which numerous departments and directorates operate. The SSG originally comprised ten ministries, with the eleventh, the Ministry of Information, being formed in 2023. Five institutions operate independently of a ministry and report directly to the prime minister. Ministerial nominees are evaluated based on several criteria, including age and academic qualifications. The nomination process involves discussions with the Shura Council's committees, elites and relevant community and professional bodies.


= Sixth cabinet (2023–2024)

=


= Seventh cabinet (2024)

=


Administrative divisions

The SSG's local
municipal council A municipal council is the legislative body of a municipality or local government area. Depending on the location and classification of the municipality it may be known as a city council, town council, town board, community council, borough cou ...
s were organized as the Administration of the Liberated Areas (ALA). The ALA was administratively divided into eight regions: Central, Northern, Sarmada,
Harem A harem is a domestic space that is reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A harem may house a man's wife or wives, their pre-pubescent male children, unmarried daughters, female domestic Domestic worker, servants, and other un ...
, Jisr ash-Shughur, Ariha, Atme and Idlib.


Foreign relations

While no country recognized the SSG as a sovereign state or a legitimate government of Syria, its Department of Political Affairs (DPA) conducted diplomatic outreach. On 29 November 2024, the DPA issued a statement that called on
Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
to end its support for the Syrian government and stated that the DPA sought to "build positive relations based on mutual respect and common interests with all countries of the world, including Russia." It issued a similar statement directed to
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
, amid rumours that Iraqi militias were planning to enter Syria to fight alongside government forces.


Economy

The territories controlled by the SSG in Idlib Governorate were primarily rural. The poor level of infrastructure in the region was further degraded by the civil war, which destroyed oil production facilities, power plants and agricultural silos. In a 2022 speech, Ahmed al-Sharaa stated his desire to see the SSG's "rate of exports ecomegreater than tsrate of imports" and to encourage industrial development by simplifying planning laws. Through its Local Product Protection Department, the SSG's Ministry of Industry has adopted a
protectionist Protectionism, sometimes referred to as trade protectionism, is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas, and a variety of other government regulations. ...
policy of imposing
tariffs A tariff or import tax is a duty imposed by a national government, customs territory, or supranational union on imports of goods and is paid by the importer. Exceptionally, an export tax may be levied on exports of goods or raw materials and is ...
on imports that compete with domestically produced goods. However, tariffs on imported raw materials and high energy costs mean that domestic production is unable to compete with imports in practice. Weak domestic demand has also limited industrial development, although some pharmaceutical factories have been established. The currency of the SSG was the
Turkish lira The lira (; Currency sign, sign: Turkish lira sign, ₺; ISO 4217, ISO 4217 code: TRY; abbreviation: TL) is the official currency of Turkey. It is also legal tender in the ''de facto'' state of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. One lira i ...
, which officially replaced the
Syrian pound The Syrian pound or lira (; abbreviation: LS or SP in Latin alphabet, Latin, ل.س in Arabic script, Arabic, historically also Pound sign, £S, and £Syr; ISO 4217, ISO code: SYP) is the currency of Syria. It is issued by the Central Bank of S ...
in June 2020 after it sharply
depreciated In accountancy, depreciation refers to two aspects of the same concept: first, an actual reduction in the fair value of an asset, such as the decrease in value of factory equipment each year as it is used and wears, and second, the allocation i ...
in value. Usage of the Syrian pound was criminalized. The Turkish lira crisis raised the cost of imports, leading to increased unemployment, inflation and commodity prices, and severely affecting economic activity. The SSG operates a "General Monetary Agency for Cash Management and Consumer Protection" which regulates foreign exchange rates, ''
hawala Hawala or hewala ( , meaning ''transfer'' or sometimes ''trust''), originating in India as havala (), also known as in Persian, and or in Somali, is a popular and informal value transfer system based on the performance and honour of a hug ...
'' services and currency exchange firms. It also operates Sham Bank, a financial institution that is the primary supplier of the lira in its territories. Sanctions prevent the population of the SSG from accessing international banking services. Access to finance is generally limited to international grants, investments made by opposition groups and
remittance A remittance is a non-commercial transfer of money by a foreign worker, a member of a diaspora community, or a citizen with familial ties abroad, for household income in their home country or homeland. Money sent home by migrants competes ...
s from the
Syrian diaspora Syrian diaspora refers to Syrian people and their descendants who chose or were forced to emigrate from Syria and now reside in other countries as immigrants, or as refugees of the Syrian Civil War. The estimated number of people of Syrian ...
. To circumvent these restrictions, both opposition groups and civilians have turned to exchanging
cryptocurrencies A cryptocurrency (colloquially crypto) is a digital currency designed to work through a computer network that is not reliant on any central authority, such as a government or bank, to uphold or maintain it. Individual coin ownership records ...
such as
Bitcoin Bitcoin (abbreviation: BTC; Currency symbol, sign: ₿) is the first Decentralized application, decentralized cryptocurrency. Based on a free-market ideology, bitcoin was invented in 2008 when an unknown entity published a white paper under ...
and Tether. Cryptocurrency stores operate in Idlib and Sarmada. HTS has encouraged their usage, declaring cryptocurrencies as ''shariah''-compliant and describing Bitcoin as the "Currency of the Future Economy". The SSG's General Authority of Zakat managed the collection of ''
zakat Zakat (or Zakāh زكاة) is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Zakat is the Arabic word for "Giving to Charity" or "Giving to the Needy". Zakat is a form of almsgiving, often collected by the Muslim Ummah. It is considered in Islam a relig ...
'', the Islamic alms-tax, from Muslims living under its administration. Failing to pay the ''zakat'' was illegal and can lead to arrest and imprisonment.


Agriculture

Agriculture in the SSG's territories was not mechanized. Olive harvesting is the main source of employment for day laborers in Idlib Governorate, and in 2020 agriculture was the primary income source for 36% of households. Both
drought A drought is a period of drier-than-normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D.  Jiang, A.  Khan, W.  Pokam Mba, D.  Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, ...
and groundwater depletion, exacerbated by illegal drilling and an influx of internally displaced persons into the region, have led to increasing production costs. The SSG's Ministry of Agriculture manages agricultural affairs and encourages the cultivation of strategic crops, such as wheat and potatoes. It maintains seed testing laboratories and produces seeds that are distributed to farmers. In 2023, the ministry produced and distributed 4,600 kilograms of cottonseed to farmers in an attempt to restart
cotton Cotton (), first recorded in ancient India, is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus '' Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure ...
cultivation in the region, which fell into decline after the reduction of government
subsidies A subsidy, subvention or government incentive is a type of government expenditure for individuals and households, as well as businesses with the aim of stabilizing the economy. It ensures that individuals and households are viable by having acce ...
in 2007, and increase female employment. The Ministry of Economy imposed
price controls Price controls are restrictions set in place and enforced by governments, on the prices that can be charged for goods and services in a market. The intent behind implementing such controls can stem from the desire to maintain affordability of go ...
on wheat. In search of higher profits, farmers increasingly planted crops not traditionally cultivated in the region, including saffron, strawberries, bananas, broccoli and Damask roses, but such enterprises remained small and experimental.


Energy

Most electricity in the SSG's territories was supplied from Turkey by the Green Energy Company, the local franchise of a Turkish firm of the same name. Electricity distribution is managed by the SSG's General Electricity Corporation. In May 2021, the Green Energy Company completed the construction of electrical substations capable of receiving 66kV from Turkey. Transmission lines connect the substations in
Reyhanlı Reyhanlı (; , ''ar-Rayḥānīyah'') is a municipality and Districts of Turkey, district of Hatay Province, Turkey. Its area is 367 km2, and its population is 108,092 (2022). It is near the country's Syria–Turkey border, border with Syria ...
in Turkey and
Harem A harem is a domestic space that is reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A harem may house a man's wife or wives, their pre-pubescent male children, unmarried daughters, female domestic Domestic worker, servants, and other un ...
in Idlib. By May 2023, over 70% of areas under the SSG's administration were connected to the electrical grid. Areas not connected to the grid rely on diesel generators and solar panels. The Green Energy Company maintains an effective
monopoly A monopoly (from Greek language, Greek and ) is a market in which one person or company is the only supplier of a particular good or service. A monopoly is characterized by a lack of economic Competition (economics), competition to produce ...
on the supply of electricity and has been accused by the
Syrian Observatory for Human Rights The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (also known as SOHR; ), founded in May 2006, is a United Kingdom-based information office whose stated aim is to document human rights abuses in Syria; since 2011 it has focused on the Syrian Civil War. ...
of unduly raising prices.


Military and law enforcement

While the SSG does not have a defense ministry, HTS effectively functions as such. Despite this, the SSG opened a military college in December 2021, whose purpose was described by Ahmed al-Sharaa as to " ncreasethe experience of the '' mujahidin'' in
military science Military science is the study of military processes, institutions, and behavior, along with the study of warfare, and the theory and application of organized coercive force. It is mainly focused on theory, method, and practice of producing mi ...
and martial arts." Over 400 officers graduated from its first course in 2022. The SSG operates a police force under the Ministry of Interior. A
police academy A police academy, also known as a law enforcement training center, police college, or police university, is a training school for police cadets, designed to prepare them for the law enforcement agency they will be joining upon graduation, or to o ...
was opened in September 2023 and produced its first batch of graduates in August 2024. In 2024, the interior ministry absorbed two security agencies of HTS after a prisoner abuse scandal led to a protest movement, and Ahmed al-Sharaa admitting that HTS had used torture to extract false confessions from prisoners. HTS' General Security Service was transferred to the interior ministry in April 2024, followed by its Public Security Service in June.


Religion

HTS has faced internal opposition from hardline Salafi jihadis, who view its moderate outlook as "un-Islamic". The SSG has institutionalised religious structures and has reasserted the role of the
Shafi'i The Shafi'i school or Shafi'i Madhhab () or Shafi'i is one of the four major schools of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It was founded by the Muslim scholar, jurist, and traditionis ...
''
madhhab A ''madhhab'' (, , pl. , ) refers to any school of thought within fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence. The major Sunni Islam, Sunni ''madhhab'' are Hanafi school, Hanafi, Maliki school, Maliki, Shafi'i school, Shafi'i and Hanbali school, Hanbali. They ...
'' of
Islamic jurisprudence ''Fiqh'' (; ) is the term for Islamic jurisprudence.Fiqh
Encyclopædia Britannica
''Fiqh'' is of ...
, the predominant legal school followed in Idlib, in an effort to marginalise Salafi-jihadi hardliners. Idlibi clerics characterise the SSG's policies concerning
mosque A mosque ( ), also called a masjid ( ), is a place of worship for Muslims. The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Salah, Islamic prayers are performed; such as an outdoor courtyard. Originally, mosques were si ...
s as being "highly centralised and authoritarian". The Ministry of Awqaf has the power to appoint and dismiss clerics; for example, in 2020, clerics affiliated with al-Qaeda affiliate Hurras al-Din in the village of Arab Sa'id were replaced by loyalists. "Mosque officers" appointed by the Ministry of Awqaf monitor mosque activities. Independent ''khatibs'' can be substituted for SSG-loyal preachers during politically sensitive events, such as bouts of rebel infighting; those who refuse substitution risk dismissal. Although HTS is
Salafi The Salafi movement or Salafism () is a fundamentalist revival movement within Sunni Islam, originating in the late 19th century and influential in the Islamic world to this day. The name "''Salafiyya''" is a self-designation, claiming a retu ...
in ''
aqidah ''Aqidah'' (, , pl. , ) is an Islamic term of Arabic origin that means "creed". It is also called Islamic creed or Islamic theology. ''Aqidah'' goes beyond concise statements of faith and may not be part of an ordinary Muslim's religious ins ...
'', the SSG has refrained from imposing a particular strand of Sunni Islam on the populace and predominately
Sufi Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism. Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
local ''
ulama In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam. "Ulama ...
''. It allows politically neutral traditional religious institutes which teach the competing
Ash'ari Ash'arism (; ) is a school of theology in Sunni Islam named after Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari, a Shāfiʿī jurist, reformer (''mujaddid''), and scholastic theologian, in the 9th–10th century. It established an orthodox guideline, based on ...
school of ''aqidah'' to operate, including those run by the
Muslim Brotherhood The Society of the Muslim Brothers ('' ''), better known as the Muslim Brotherhood ( ', is a transnational Sunni Islamist organization founded in Egypt by Islamic scholar, Imam and schoolteacher Hassan al-Banna in 1928. Al-Banna's teachings s ...
and
Tablighi Jamaat Tablighi Jamaat ( , also translated as "propagation party" or "preaching party") is an international Islamic schools and branches, Islamic religious movement. It focuses on exhorting Muslims to be more religiously observant and encourages f ...
. It has gradually accommodated a larger diversity of religious views among preachers, an evolution driven partly by a lack of manpower. Public opposition halted early attempts at imposing religious laws such as women being required to travel with a ''
mahram In Islam, a () is a family member with whom marriage would be considered permanently unlawful (''haram''). A woman does not need to wear hijab around her mahram or spouse, and an adult male mahram or husband may escort a woman on a journey, a ...
''. Schools are segregated by gender, but mixing between genders at restaurants and shopping centres is not prevented. The SSG encourages women to "dress modestly" and wear the ''
hijab Hijab (, ) refers to head coverings worn by Women in Islam, Muslim women. Similar to the mitpaḥat/tichel or Snood (headgear), snood worn by religious married Jewish women, certain Christian head covering, headcoverings worn by some Christian w ...
'', but does not force them to wear the ''
niqāb A niqāb, niqab, or niqaab (; ), also known as a ruband () or rubandah (), is a long garment worn by some Muslim women in order to cover their entire body and face, excluding their eyes. It is an interpretation in Islam of the concept of ...
''. The ''sharia'''s ''
hudud ''Hudud'' is an Arabic word meaning "borders, boundaries, limits". The word is applied in classical Islamic literature to punishments (ranging from public lashing, public stoning to death, amputation of hands, crucifixion, depending on the c ...
'' punishments, such as stoning and flogging, are not imposed. In 2020, Ahmed al-Sharaa told HTS fighters that "some people limit the issue of implementing the rule of the ''sharia'' to just imposing some of the hudud punishments, chopping off hands, stoning whomever, whipping someone who drinks alcohol ..but this is a very basic part of the very big concept of implementing the rule of the ''sharia''". In December 2024, the SSG's Department for Political Affairs issued a communique addressed to Syria's
Alawites Alawites () are an Arab ethnoreligious group who live primarily in the Levant region in West Asia and follow Alawism, a sect of Islam that splintered from early Shia as a ''ghulat'' branch during the ninth century. Alawites venerate Ali ...
, stating that the Assad government had exploited the sect for its survival and had consequently caused "deep societal wounds". It further stated that the "Syrian revolution is a call for freedom, dignity and justice for all under the roof of Syria", and that while it may be "challenging", "wise individuals" from the Alawite sect could lead it to a "just and inclusive future".


Education

The SSG's Ministry of Education supervises the formal schooling system in Idlib, with more than 550,000 students, 1,800 schools and 12
universities A university () is an educational institution, institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several Discipline (academia), academic disciplines. ''University'' is derived from the Latin phrase , which roughly ...
as of 2022. These include approximately 950 schools directly operated by the ministry and employing nearly 12,500 staff members, in addition to the private education system authorized by the SSG. The curriculum is a continuation of the pre-2011 Syrian syllabus developed in partnership with
UNICEF UNICEF ( ), originally the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, officially United Nations Children's Fund since 1953, is an agency of the United Nations responsible for providing Humanitarianism, humanitarian and Development a ...
, with the exception of texts related to the
Assad regime Ba'athist Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR), was the Syrian state between 1963 and 2024 under the one-party rule of the Syrian regional branch of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. From 1971 until its collapse in 2024, it was rule ...
or deemed as contradicting the
Sharia Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on Islamic holy books, scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran, Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' ...
as per its education ministry guidelines. Educational institutions follow
gender segregation Sex segregation, sex separation, sex partition, gender segregation, gender separation, or gender partition is the physical, legal, or cultural separation of people according to their gender or biological sex at any age. Sex segregation can si ...
norms. Education has been severely disrupted by airstrikes on educational facilities and a lack of funding. In 2022, Ahmed al-Sharaa stated that 200,000 people in the SSG's territories had dropped out of school, warning this could lead to "illiteracy that leads to ignorance, which is a precursor to crime, unemployment, begging, and many other things." In September 2024, the White Helmets reported that 170 schools had been bombed since 2019. In October 2023, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) estimated that at least 1 million of the 2.2 million school-aged children in the region were not in education. In 2024, OCHA stated that a decline in international funding had deprived 700 schools of resources, affecting 110,000 students and 6,500 teachers.


See also

* Ebaa News Agency – News agency that reports favorably toward the Salvation Government *
Politics of Syria The government of Syria takes place in a presidential system and is currently in a transitionary period under and led by a transitional government. The seat of the government is located in Damascus, Syria. On 8 December 2024, after the succe ...
* Watad Petroleum *
National Salvation Government The National Salvation Government () was a government body formed by politicians from the General National Congress's blocs that lost the June 2014 elections in Libya. The NSG was led by Khalifa al-Ghawil. The term Libya Dawn Coalition was ...


Notes


References


External links

* {{Syrian civil war 2017 establishments in Syria 2024 disestablishments in Syria Syrian opposition groups Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham Salafist states