Susa ( ) was an ancient city in the lower
Zagros Mountains
The Zagros Mountains are a mountain range in Iran, northern Iraq, and southeastern Turkey. The mountain range has a total length of . The Zagros range begins in northwestern Iran and roughly follows Iran's western border while covering much of s ...
about east of the
Tigris
The Tigris ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian Desert, Syrian and Arabia ...
, between the
Karkheh and
Dez Rivers in Iran. One of the most important cities of the
Ancient Near East
The ancient Near East was home to many cradles of civilization, spanning Mesopotamia, Egypt, Iran (or Persia), Anatolia and the Armenian highlands, the Levant, and the Arabian Peninsula. As such, the fields of ancient Near East studies and Nea ...
, Susa served as the capital of
Elam
Elam () was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of modern-day southern Iraq. The modern name ''Elam'' stems fr ...
and the winter capital of the
Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian peoples, Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, i ...
, and remained a strategic centre during the
Parthian and
Sasanian
The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranians"), was an Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, the length of the Sasanian dynasty's reign ...
periods.
The site currently consists of three archaeological mounds, covering an area of around . The city of
Shush is located on the site of ancient Susa.
Name
The name Susa is of Elamiate origin and has appeared in many languages:
*Middle
*Middle and Neo-
*Neo-
Elamite
Elamite, also known as Hatamtite and formerly as Scythic, Median, Amardian, Anshanian and Susian, is an extinct language that was spoken by the ancient Elamites. It was recorded in what is now southwestern Iran from 2600 BC to 330 BC. Elamite i ...
and
Achaemenid
The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, it was the large ...
*
Achaemenid
The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, it was the large ...
*
*
*
* or
*New
*
Literary references

Susa was one of the most important cities of the
Ancient Near East
The ancient Near East was home to many cradles of civilization, spanning Mesopotamia, Egypt, Iran (or Persia), Anatolia and the Armenian highlands, the Levant, and the Arabian Peninsula. As such, the fields of ancient Near East studies and Nea ...
. In
historic literature, Susa appears in the very earliest Sumerian records: for example, it is described as one of the places obedient to
Inanna
Inanna is the List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian goddess of war, love, and fertility. She is also associated with political power, divine law, sensuality, and procreation. Originally worshipped in Sumer, she was known by the Akk ...
, patron deity of
Uruk
Uruk, the archeological site known today as Warka, was an ancient city in the Near East, located east of the current bed of the Euphrates River, on an ancient, now-dried channel of the river in Muthanna Governorate, Iraq. The site lies 93 kilo ...
, in ''
Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta
''Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta'' is a legendary Sumerian language, Sumerian account, preserved in early post-Sumerian copies, composed in the Neo-Sumerian period (ca. 21st century BC).
It is one of a series of accounts describing the conflicts ...
''.
Biblical texts
Susa is mentioned in the
Ketuvim
The (; ) is the third and final section of the Hebrew Bible, after the ("instruction") and the "Prophets". In English translations of the Hebrew Bible, this section is usually titled "Writings" or "Hagiographa".
In the Ketuvim, 1–2 Books ...
of the
Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;["Tanach"](_blank)
. '' Book of Esther
The Book of Esther (; ; ), also known in Hebrew language, Hebrew as "the Scroll" ("the wikt:מגילה, Megillah"), is a book in the third section (, "Writings") of the Hebrew Bible. It is one of the Five Megillot, Five Scrolls () in the Hebr ...
, but also once each in the books of
Ezra (Ezra 4:9),
Nehemiah
Nehemiah (; ''Nəḥemyā'', "Yahweh, Yah comforts") is the central figure of the Book of Nehemiah, which describes his work in rebuilding Jerusalem during the Second Temple period as the governor of Yehud Medinata, Persian Judea under Artaxer ...
(Nehemiah 1:1) and
Daniel (Daniel 8:2). According to these texts, Nehemiah lived in Susa during the
Babylonian captivity
The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian exile was the period in Jewish history during which a large number of Judeans from the ancient Kingdom of Judah were forcibly relocated to Babylonia by the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The deportations occurred ...
of the 6th century BC (Daniel mentions it in a prophetic vision), while
Esther
Esther (; ), originally Hadassah (; ), is the eponymous heroine of the Book of Esther in the Hebrew Bible. According to the biblical narrative, which is set in the Achaemenid Empire, the Persian king Ahasuerus falls in love with Esther and ma ...
became queen there, married to
King Ahasuerus, and saved the Jews from
genocide
Genocide is violence that targets individuals because of their membership of a group and aims at the destruction of a people. Raphael Lemkin, who first coined the term, defined genocide as "the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group" by ...
. A tomb presumed to be that of Daniel is located in the area, known as ''Shush-Daniel''. However, a large portion of the current structure is actually a much later construction dated to the late nineteenth century, .
Pseudepigrapha
Susa is further mentioned in the ''
Book of Jubilees
The Book of Jubilees is an ancient Jewish apocryphal text of 50 chapters (1,341 verses), considered canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, as well as by Haymanot Judaism, a denomination observed by members of Ethiopian Jewish ...
'' (8:21 & 9:2) as one of the places within the inheritance of
Shem
Shem (; ''Šēm''; ) is one of the sons of Noah in the Bible ( Genesis 5–11 and 1 Chronicles 1:4).
The children of Shem are Elam, Ashur, Arphaxad, Lud and Aram, in addition to unnamed daughters. Abraham, the patriarch of Jews, Christ ...
and his eldest son
Elam
Elam () was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of modern-day southern Iraq. The modern name ''Elam'' stems fr ...
; and in 8:1, "Susan" is also named as the son (or daughter, in some translations) of Elam.
Excavation history

The site was examined in 1836 by
Henry Rawlinson and then by
A. H. Layard.
In 1851, some modest excavation was done by
William Loftus, accompanied by
Fenwick Williams, who identified it as Susa. Among his finds was a jar containing around 110 coins, the earliest of which was dated to 697-98 AD.
In 1885 and 1886
Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy and
Jane Dieulafoy began the first French excavations, discovering glazed bricks, column bases, and capitals from the palace of the Achaemenid kings. However, they failed to identify mudbrick walls, which were then destroyed in the course of excavation.
Almost all of the excavations at Susa, post-1885, were organized and authorized by the French government.
In two treaties in 1894 and 1899, the French gained a monopoly on all archaeological excavations in Iran indefinitely.
Jacques de Morgan
Jean-Jacques de Morgan (3 June 1857 – 14 June 1924) was a French mining engineer, geologist, and archaeologist. He was the director of antiquities in Egypt during the 19th century, and excavated in Memphis and Dahshur, providing many dra ...
, after visiting the site in 1891, conducted major excavations from 1897 until 1911. The excavations that were conducted in Susa brought many artistic and historical artifacts back to France. These artifacts filled multiple halls in the Museum of the Louvre throughout the late 1890s and early 1900s.
De Morgan's most important work was the excavation of the Grande Tranchée in the Acropole mound, where he found the stele of
Naram-Sin, a collection of Babylonian
kudurru
A kudurru was a type of stone document used as a boundary stone and as a record of land grants to vassals by the Kassites and later dynasties in ancient Babylonia between the 16th and 7th centuries BC. The original kudurru would typically be stor ...
s (boundary stones), the stele bearing the
Code of Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian language, Akkadi ...
, an ornamented bronze table of snakes, the bronze statue of
Queen Napir-Asu, and thousands of inscribed bricks. His finds showed Susa to be the most important center of
Elamite civilization, which was effectively discovered by the French mission at Susa.
Excavation efforts continued under
Roland De Mecquenem until 1914, at the beginning of
World War I
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
. French work at Susa resumed after the war, led by De Mecquenem, continuing until
World War II
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
in 1940. To supplement the original publications of De Mecquenem the archives of his excavation have now been put online thanks to a grant from the Shelby White Levy Program.
Roman Ghirshman took over direction of the French efforts in 1946, after the end of the war. Together with his wife
Tania Ghirshman, he continued there until 1967. The Ghirshmans concentrated on excavating a single part of the site, the hectare sized Ville Royale, taking it all the way down to bare earth. The pottery found at the various levels enabled a stratigraphy to be developed for Susa.
From 1969 until 1979 excavations were conducted under
Jean Perrot.
In 2019 the Susa salvage project was launched to counter the construction of a transportation underpass in the vicinity of the site.
History
Early settlement
In
urban history, Susa is one of the oldest-known settlements of the region. Based on calibrated
carbon-14 dating, the foundation of a settlement there occurred as early as 4200 BC. In the region around Susa were a number of towns (with their own platforms) and villages that maintained a trading relationship with the city, especially those along the Zagro frontier.
The founding of Susa corresponded with the abandonment of nearby villages. Potts suggests that the settlement may have been founded to try to reestablish the previously destroyed settlement at
Chogha Mish, about 25 km to the west.
[Potts: ''Elam''.] Previously,
Chogha Mish was a very large settlement, and it featured a similar massive platform that was later built at Susa.
Another important settlement in the area is
Chogha Bonut, which was discovered in 1976.
Susa I period (4200–3800 BC)
Shortly after Susa was first settled over 6000 years ago, its inhabitants erected a monumental platform that rose over the flat surrounding landscape. The exceptional nature of the site is still recognizable today in the artistry of the ceramic vessels that were placed as offerings in a thousand or more graves near the base of the temple platform.
Susa's earliest settlement is known as the ''Susa I'' period (c. 4200–3900 BC). Two settlements named by archaeologists the ''Acropolis'' (7 ha) and the ''Apadana'' (6.3 ha), would later merge to form Susa proper (18 ha).
The ''Apadana'' was enclosed by 6 metre thick walls of
rammed earth
Rammed earth is a technique for construction, constructing foundations, floors, and walls using compacted natural raw materials such as soil, earth, chalk, Lime (material), lime, or gravel. It is an ancient method that has been revived recently ...
(this particular place is named
Apadana
Apadana (, or ) is a large hypostyle hall in Persepolis, Iran. It belongs to the oldest building phase of the city of Persepolis, in the first half of the 5th century BC, as part of the original design by Darius I, Darius the Great. Its cons ...
because it also contains a late
Achaemenid
The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, it was the large ...
structure of this type).
Nearly two thousand pots of ''Susa I'' style were recovered from the cemetery, most of them now in the
Louvre
The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...
. The vessels found are eloquent testimony to the artistic and technical achievements of their makers, and they hold clues about the organization of the society that commissioned them.
Painted ceramic vessels from Susa in the earliest first style are a late, regional version of the Mesopotamian
Ubaid ceramic tradition that spread across the Near East during the fifth millennium BC.
Susa I style was very much a product of the past and of influences from contemporary ceramic industries in the mountains of western Iran. The recurrence in close association of vessels of three types—a drinking goblet or beaker, a serving dish, and a small jar—implies the consumption of three types of food, apparently thought to be as necessary for life in the afterworld as it is in this one. Ceramics of these shapes, which were painted, constitute a large proportion of the vessels from the cemetery. Others are coarse cooking-type jars and bowls with simple bands painted on them and were probably the grave goods of the sites of humbler citizens as well as adolescents and, perhaps, children. The pottery is carefully made by hand. Although a slow wheel may have been employed, the asymmetry of the vessels and the irregularity of the drawing of encircling lines and bands indicate that most of the work was done freehand.
Metallurgy
Copper metallurgy is also attested during this period, which was contemporary with metalwork at some highland Iranian sites such as
Tepe Sialk.
As many as 40 copper axes have been found at the Susa cemetery, as well as 10 round discs probably used as mirrors. Many awls and spatulas were also found.
: "Metal finds from the burials in Susa are the major metal assemblage from the end of the 5th millennium BCE. Strata 27 to 25 contained the earliest burials with a large number of axes, made from unalloyed copper and copper with elevated As
rseniclevels."
The cemetery of
Chega Sofla, from the same timeframe, provides a lot of similar material, with many sophisticated metal objects. Chega Sofla is located in the same geographical area.
Ceramic objects
Louvre Suse I Boisseau décor géométrique 1 14012018.jpg
Louvre Suse I Nécropole du tell de l'Acropole Coupe décor géométrique, SB 3175 1 14012018.jpg
File:Master of animals, Susa I.jpg, Master of animals, Susa I, Louvre Sb 2246.
File:Sun and deities, Susa I.jpg, Sun and deities, Susa I, Louvre
Susa II and Uruk influence (3800–3100 BC)
Susa came within the Uruk cultural sphere during the
Uruk period
The Uruk period (; also known as Protoliterate period) existed from the protohistory, protohistoric Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age period in the history of Mesopotamia, after the Ubaid period and before the Jemdet Nasr period. Named after the S ...
. An imitation of the entire state apparatus of Uruk,
proto-writing
Proto-writing consists of visible marks communication, communicating limited information. Such systems emerged from earlier traditions of symbol systems in the early Neolithic, as early as the 7th millennium BC in History of China, China a ...
,
cylinder seal
A cylinder seal is a small round cylinder, typically about one inch (2 to 3 cm) in width, engraved with written characters or figurative scenes or both, used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface, generally ...
s with Sumerian motifs, and monumental architecture is found at Susa. The comparative
periodization
In historiography, periodization is the process or study of categorizing the past into discrete, quantified, and named blocks of time for the purpose of study or analysis.Adam Rabinowitz.It's about time: historical periodization and Linked Ancie ...
of Susa and Uruk at this time remains disputed among scholars with some research indicating that Early Uruk period corresponds to Susa II period.Research indicates that Early Uruk period corresponds to Susa II period.
The nature and extent of Uruk influence in Susa is also disputed. Daniel T. Potts argues that the influence from the highland Iranian
Khuzestan
Khuzestan province () is one of the 31 Provinces of Iran. Located in the southwest of the country, the province borders Iraq and the Persian Gulf, covering an area of . Its capital is the city of Ahvaz. Since 2014, it has been part of Iran's ...
area in Susa was more significant at the early period, and also continued later on. Thus, Susa combined the influence of two cultures, from the highland area and from the
alluvial plains. Potts also stresses that Susa did not simply borrow the writing and numerical systems of Uruk wholesale, but were adopted only partially and selectively as needed.
Uruk was far larger than Susa at the time, raising questions about its influence. Some scholars believe that Susa was part of the greater Uruk culture. Holly Pittman, an art historian at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia says, "they Susanians are participating entirely in an Uruk way of life. They are not culturally distinct; the material culture of Susa is a regional variation of that on the Mesopotamian plain".
Others emphasize Susa's relative independence. They deny that Susa was a colony of Uruk: it maintained some independence for a long time, according to Potts. An architectural link has also been suggested between Susa, Tal-i Malyan, and
Godin Tepe at this time, in support of the idea of the parallel development of the
Proto-Cuneiform and proto-elamite scripts. Gilbert Stein, director of the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute, notes that "An expansion once thought to have lasted less than 200 years now apparently went on for 700 years. It is hard to think of any colonial system lasting that long. The spread of Uruk material is not evidence of Uruk domination; it could be local choice".
File:King-priest with bow fighting enemies, with horned temple (composite of two imprints of the same cylinder seal).jpg, King-priest with bow fighting enemies, with horned temple in the center. Susa II or Uruk period (3800–3100 BC), found in excavations at Susa. Louvre Museum.
File:Accountancy clay envelope Louvre Sb1932.jpg, Globular envelope with the accounting tokens. Clay, Uruk period (c. 3500 BC). From the Tell of the Acropolis in Susa. The Louvre
The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...
File:Susa II, work in the granaries (composite).jpg, Work in the granaries, Susa II, Louvre.
File:Susa II King-Priest with bow and arrow.jpg, Priest-King with bow and arrows, Susa II, Louvre.
File:Susa II, prisoners.jpg, Prisoners, Susa II, Louvre.
File:Orant statuette-Sb 69-P5280684-gradient.jpg, Orant statuette, Susa II, Louvre.
Susa III, or "Proto-Elamite", period (3100–2700 BC)
Susa III (3100–2700 BC) is also known as the '
Proto-Elamite
The Proto-Elamite period, also known as Susa III, is a chronological era in the ancient history of the area of Elam, dating from . In archaeological terms this corresponds to the late Banesh period. Proto-Elamite sites are recognized as the o ...
' period. At this time, Banesh period pottery is predominant. This is also when the Proto-Elamite tablets first appear in the record. Subsequently, Susa became the centre of
Elam
Elam () was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of modern-day southern Iraq. The modern name ''Elam'' stems fr ...
civilization.
Ambiguous reference to Elam () appear also in this period in
Sumer
Sumer () is the earliest known civilization, located in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia (now south-central Iraq), emerging during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age, early Bronze Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. ...
ian records. Susa enters recorded history in the
Early Dynastic period of Sumer. A battle between
Kish
Kish may refer to:
Businesses and organisations
* KISH, a radio station in Guam
* Kish Air, an Iranian airline
* Korean International School in Hanoi, Vietnam
People
* Kish (surname), including a list of people with the name
* Kish, a former ...
and Susa is recorded in 2700 BC, when
En-me-barage-si is said to have "made the land of Elam submit".
File:Susa III or Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150-2800 BC Louvre Museum Sb 1484.jpg, Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal, 3150–2800 BC. Louvre Museum
The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...
, reference Sb 1484
File:Susa III or Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150-2800 BC Mythological being on a boat Louvre Museum Sb 6379.jpg, Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Mythological being on a boat Louvre Museum Sb 6379
File:Susa III or Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150-2800 BC Louvre Museum Sb 6166.jpg, Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Louvre Museum Sb 6166
File:P1180316 Louvre Suse III tablette économique Sb15200 rwk.jpg, Economical tablet in Proto-Elamite script
The Proto-Elamite script is an early Bronze Age writing system briefly in use before the introduction of Elamite cuneiform.
There are many similarities between the Proto-Elamite tablets and the contemporaneous proto-cuneiform tablets of the ...
, Suse III, Louvre Museum
The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...
, reference Sb 15200, circa 3100–2850 BC
Elamites
In the
Sumer
Sumer () is the earliest known civilization, located in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia (now south-central Iraq), emerging during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age, early Bronze Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. ...
ian period, Susa was the capital of a state called Susiana (Šušan), which occupied approximately the same territory of modern
Khūzestān Province centered on the
Karun River. Control of Susiana shifted between
Elam
Elam () was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of modern-day southern Iraq. The modern name ''Elam'' stems fr ...
, Sumer, and
Akkad.
During the
Elamite monarchy, many riches and materials were brought to Susa from the plundering of other cities. This was mainly due to the fact of Susa's location on Iran's South Eastern region, closer to the city of Babylon and cities in Mesopotamia.
The use of the Elamite language as an administrative language was first attested in texts of ancient Ansan, Tall-e Mal-yan, dated 1000 BC. Previous to the era of Elamites, the Akkadian language was responsible for most or all of the text used in ancient documents. Susiana was incorporated by
Sargon the Great into his
Akkadian Empire
The Akkadian Empire () was the first known empire, succeeding the long-lived city-states of Sumer. Centered on the city of Akkad (city), Akkad ( or ) and its surrounding region, the empire united Akkadian language, Akkadian and Sumerian languag ...
in approximately 2330 BC.

The main goddess of the city was
Nanaya, who had a significant temple in Susa.
Old Elamite period (c. 2700–1500 BC)
The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by
Enmebaragesi, the
Sumer
Sumer () is the earliest known civilization, located in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia (now south-central Iraq), emerging during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age, early Bronze Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. ...
ian king of
Kish
Kish may refer to:
Businesses and organisations
* KISH, a radio station in Guam
* Kish Air, an Iranian airline
* Korean International School in Hanoi, Vietnam
People
* Kish (surname), including a list of people with the name
* Kish, a former ...
in
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
. Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those of
Awan (or ''Avan''; c. 2400–2100 BC) and
Simashki (c. 2100–1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to the
Old Babylonian period. Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and
Hamazi; and likewise, several of the stronger
Sumer
Sumer () is the earliest known civilization, located in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia (now south-central Iraq), emerging during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age, early Bronze Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. ...
ian rulers, such as
Eannatum
Eannatum ( ; ) was a Sumerian ''Ensi (Sumerian), Ensi'' (ruler or king) of Lagash. He established one of the first verifiable empires in history, subduing Elam and destroying the city of Susa, and extending his domain over the rest of Sumer and Akk ...
of
Lagash
Lagash (; cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Lagaš'') was an ancient city-state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Al-Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash ( ...
and
Lugal-anne-mundu of
Adab, are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam.
Kutik-Inshushinak
Susa was the capital of an Akkadian province until ca. 2100 BC, when its governor,
Kutik-Inshushinak, rebelled and made it an independent state and a literary center. Also, he was the last from the
Awan dynasty according to the Susa kinglist. He unified the neighbouring territories and became the king of
Elam
Elam () was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of modern-day southern Iraq. The modern name ''Elam'' stems fr ...
. He encouraged the use of the
Linear Elamite script, that remains undeciphered.
The city was subsequently conquered by the neo-Sumerian
Third Dynasty of Ur
The Third Dynasty of Ur or Ur III was a Sumerian dynasty based in the city of Ur in the 22nd and 21st centuries BC ( middle chronology). For a short period they were the preeminent power in Mesopotamia and their realm is sometimes referred to by ...
and held until Ur finally collapsed at the hands of the Elamites under
Kindattu in ca. 2004 BC. At this time, Susa was ruled by Elam again and became its capital under the Shimashki dynasty.
Indus-Susa relations (2400–2100 BC)
Numerous artifacts of
Indus Valley civilization
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE ...
origin have been found in Susa from this period, especially seals and
etched carnelian beads, pointing to
Indus-Mesopotamia relations during this period.
File:Susa seal with Indus signs.jpg, Impression of an Indus cylinder seal discovered in Susa, in strata dated to 2400–2100 BC. Elongated buffalo with line of standard Indus script signs. Tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum
The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...
, reference Sb 2425. Indus script numbering convention per Asko Parpola
Asko Heikki Siegfried Parpola (born 12 July 1941, in Forssa) is a Finnish Indologist, current professor emeritus of Indology at the University of Helsinki. He specializes in the Indus Valley Civilization, specifically the study of the Indus scr ...
.
File:Indus round seal with impression Elongated buffalo with Harappan scrpit imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE LOUVRE Sb5614.jpg, Indus round seal with impression. Elongated buffalo with Harappan script imported to Susa in 2340–2200 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum
The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...
, reference Sb 5614
File:Indus carnelian beads with white design imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE LOUVRE Sb 13099.jpg, Indian carnelian beads with white design, etched in white with an alkali through a heat process, imported to Susa in 2400–2100 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum
The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...
, reference Sb 17751. These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site of Dholavira
Dholavira () is an archaeological site at Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District, in the state of Gujarat in western India, which has taken its name from a modern-day village south of it. This village is from Radhanpur. Also known loc ...
.
File:Indus bracelet made of Fasciolaria Trapezium or Xandus Pyrum imported front and back with inscribed chevron to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE LOUVRE Sb14473.jpg, Indus bracelet, front and back, made of '' Pleuroploca trapezium'' or '' Turbinella pyrum'' imported to Susa in 2400–2100 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 14473. This type of bracelet was manufactured in Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro (; , ; ) is an archaeological site in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan. Built 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation, and one of the world's earliest major city, cities, contemp ...
, Lothal
Lothal () was one of the southernmost sites of the ancient Indus Valley civilization, Indus Valley civilisation, located in the Bhal region of the Indian state of Gujarat. Construction of the city is believed to have begun around 2200 BCE.
Di ...
and Balakot
Balakot (; ; ) is a town in Mansehra district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The town was significantly damaged during the 2005 Kashmir earthquake but was later rebuilt with the assistance of the Government of Pakistan.
Geography
Balakot is l ...
. The back is engraved with an oblong chevron design which is typical of shell bangles of the Indus Civilization.
File:Indus Valley Civilization carnelian beads excavated in Susa.jpg, Indus Valley Civilization carnelian beads excavated in Susa.
Jewelry with components from the Indus, Central Asia and Northern-eastern Iran found in Susa dated to 2600-1700 BCE, SB 13099.jpg, Jewelry with components from the Indus, Central Asia and Northern-eastern Iran found in Susa dated to 2400–2100 BC. Louvre - SB 13099; N 601.
Middle Elamite period (c. 1500–1100 BC)
Around 1500 BC, the Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While, previously, the Akkadian language was frequently used in inscriptions, the succeeding kings, such as the Igihalkid dynasty of c. 1400 BC, tried to use Elamite. Thus, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana.
This was also the period when the Elamite pantheon was being imposed in Susiana. This policy reached its height with the construction of the political and religious complex at
Chogha Zanbil, south-east of Susa.
In ca. 1175 BC, the Elamites under
Shutruk-Nahhunte plundered the original
stele
A stele ( ) or stela ( )The plural in English is sometimes stelai ( ) based on direct transliteration of the Greek, sometimes stelae or stelæ ( ) based on the inflection of Greek nouns in Latin, and sometimes anglicized to steles ( ) or stela ...
bearing the ''
Code of Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text composed during 1755–1750 BC. It is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved legal text from the ancient Near East. It is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian language, Akkadi ...
'' and took it to Susa. Archeologists found it in 1901.
Nebuchadnezzar I of the
Babylonia
Babylonia (; , ) was an Ancient history, ancient Akkadian language, Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Kuwait, Syria and Iran). It emerged as a ...
n empire plundered Susa around fifty years later.
File:Goatfishes Louvre Sb19.jpg, An ornate design on this limestone ritual vat from the Middle Elamite period depicts creatures with the heads of goats and the tails of fish, Susa, 1500–1110 BC.
File:Tchogha_Zanbil.jpg, The Ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil was built by Elamite king Untash-Napirisha
Untash-Napirisha was king of Elam (in present-day southwest Iran) during the Middle Elamite period, circa 1300 BCE. He was the son of the previous Elamite king, Humban-Numena and of a daughter (or granddaughter) of Kurigalzu. He was named afte ...
circa 1300 BC.
File:Susa, Middle-Elamite model of a sun ritual, circa 1150 BCE.jpg, Susa, Middle-Elamite model of a sun ritual, circa 1150 BC
Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100–540 BC)
=Neo-Assyrians
=
In 647 BC,
Neo-Assyrian king
Ashurbanipal leveled the city during a war in which the people of Susa participated on the other side. A tablet unearthed in 1854 by
Austen Henry Layard in
Nineveh
Nineveh ( ; , ''URUNI.NU.A, Ninua''; , ''Nīnəwē''; , ''Nīnawā''; , ''Nīnwē''), was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia, located in the modern-day city of Mosul (itself built out of the Assyrian town of Mepsila) in northern ...
reveals Ashurbanipal as an "avenger", seeking retribution for the humiliations that the Elamites had inflicted on the Mesopotamians over the centuries:
"Susa, the great holy city, abode of their gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed. . . .I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and, on their lands, I sowed salt."
Assyrian rule of Susa began in 647 BC and lasted till
Median
The median of a set of numbers is the value separating the higher half from the lower half of a Sample (statistics), data sample, a statistical population, population, or a probability distribution. For a data set, it may be thought of as the “ ...
capture of Susa in 617 BC.
Susa after Achaemenid Persian conquest

Susa underwent a major
political
Politics () is the set of activities that are associated with decision-making, making decisions in social group, groups, or other forms of power (social and political), power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of Social sta ...
and
ethnocultural transition when it became part of the Persian
Achaemenid
The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, it was the large ...
empire between 540 and 539 BC when it was captured by
Cyrus the Great
Cyrus II of Persia ( ; 530 BC), commonly known as Cyrus the Great, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Achaemenid dynasty (i. The clan and dynasty) Hailing from Persis, he brought the Achaemenid dynasty to power by defeating the Media ...
during his conquest of
Elam
Elam () was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of modern-day southern Iraq. The modern name ''Elam'' stems fr ...
(Susiana), of which Susa was the capital. The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict over Susa had begun possibly in the winter of 540 BC.
It is probable that Cyrus negotiated with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation. Nabonidus was staying in the city at the time and soon fled to the capital, Babylon, which he had not visited in years.
Cyrus' conquest of Susa and the rest of Babylonia commenced a fundamental shift, bringing Susa under Persian control for the first time.
Strabo
Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-si ...
stated that Cyrus made Susa an imperial capital though there was no new construction in that period so this is in dispute.
Under Cyrus' son
Cambyses II
Cambyses II () was the second King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning 530 to 522 BCE. He was the son of and successor to Cyrus the Great (); his mother was Cassandane. His relatively brief reign was marked by his conquests in North Afric ...
, Susa became a center of political power as one of four capitals of the Achaemenid Persian empire, while reducing the significance of
Pasargadae as the capital of Persis. Following Cambyses' brief rule,
Darius the Great
Darius I ( ; – 486 BCE), commonly known as Darius the Great, was the third King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 522 BCE until his death in 486 BCE. He ruled the empire at its territorial peak, when it included much of West A ...
began a major building program in Susa and
Persepolis
Persepolis (; ; ) was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire (). It is situated in the plains of Marvdasht, encircled by the southern Zagros mountains, Fars province of Iran. It is one of the key Iranian cultural heritage sites and ...
, which included building a large
palace
A palace is a large residence, often serving as a royal residence or the home for a head of state or another high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome whi ...
. During this time he describes his new capital in an inscription:
"This palace which I built at Susa, from afar its ornamentation was brought. Downward the earth was dug, until I reached rock in the earth. When the excavation had been made, then rubble was packed down, some 40 cubits in depth, another part 20 cubits in depth. On that rubble the palace was constructed."
The city forms the setting of ''
The Persians
''The Persians'' (, ''Persai'', Latinised as ''Persae'') is an ancient Greek tragedy written during the Classical period of Ancient Greece by the Greek tragedian Aeschylus. It is the second and only surviving part of a now otherwise lost trilog ...
'' (472 BC), an
Athenian
Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
tragedy
A tragedy is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a tragic hero, main character or cast of characters. Traditionally, the intention of tragedy is to invoke an accompanying catharsi ...
by the
ancient Greek
Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...
playwright
Aeschylus
Aeschylus (, ; ; /524 – /455 BC) was an ancient Greece, ancient Greek Greek tragedy, tragedian often described as the father of tragedy. Academic knowledge of the genre begins with his work, and understanding of earlier Greek tragedy is large ...
that is the oldest surviving play in the
history of theatre
The history of theatre charts the development of theatre over the past 2,500 years. While performative elements are present in every society, it is customary to acknowledge a distinction between theatre as an art form and entertainment, and ' ...
.
Events mentioned in the
Old Testament
The Old Testament (OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew and occasionally Aramaic writings by the Isr ...
book of
Esther
Esther (; ), originally Hadassah (; ), is the eponymous heroine of the Book of Esther in the Hebrew Bible. According to the biblical narrative, which is set in the Achaemenid Empire, the Persian king Ahasuerus falls in love with Esther and ma ...
are said to have occurred in Susa during the Achaemenid period. The King
Ahasuerus mentioned in that book may refer to
Xerxes I
Xerxes I ( – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great, was a List of monarchs of Persia, Persian ruler who served as the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 486 BC until his assassination in 465 BC. He was ...
(486-465 BC).
Seleucid period
Susa lost much of its importance after the invasion of
Alexander the Great of Macedon in 331 BC. In 324 BC he met
Nearchus
Nearchus or Nearchos (; – 300 BC) was one of the Greeks, Greek officers, a navarch, in the army of Alexander the Great. He is known for his celebrated expeditionary voyage starting from the Indus River, through the Persian Gulf and ending at t ...
here, who explored the Persian Gulf as he returned from the Indus River by sea. In that same year Alexander celebrated in Susa with a
mass wedding between the
Persians
Persians ( ), or the Persian people (), are an Iranian ethnic group from West Asia that came from an earlier group called the Proto-Iranians, which likely split from the Indo-Iranians in 1800 BCE from either Afghanistan or Central Asia. They ...
and
Macedonians.
The city retained its importance under the
Seleucids for approximately one century after Alexander, however Susa lost its position of imperial capital to
Seleucia on the Tigris
Seleucia (; ), also known as or or Seleucia ad Tigrim, was a major Mesopotamian city, located on the west bank of the Tigris River within the present-day Baghdad Governorate in Iraq. It was founded around 305 BC by Seleucus I Nicator as the f ...
to become the regional capital of the
satrapy of Susiana. Nevertheless, Susa retained its economic importance to the empire with its vast assortment of merchants conducting trade in Susa, using
Charax Spasinou as its port.
The city was named Seleucia on the Eulaeus or Seleucia ad Eulaeum.
Seleucus I Nicator
Seleucus I Nicator (; Ancient Greek, Greek: Σέλευκος Νικάτωρ, ''Séleukos Nikátōr'', "Seleucus the Victorious"; ) was a Ancient Macedonians, Macedonian Greek general, officer and successor of Alexander the Great who went on to fo ...
minted coins there in substantial quantities. Susa is rich in Greek inscriptions, perhaps indicating a significant number of Greeks living in the city. Especially in the royal city large, well-equipped peristyle houses have been excavated.
Parthian period
Around 147 BC Susa and the adjacent
Elymais broke free from the
Seleucid Empire
The Seleucid Empire ( ) was a Greek state in West Asia during the Hellenistic period. It was founded in 312 BC by the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator, following the division of the Macedonian Empire founded by Alexander the Great ...
. The city was at least temporarily ruled by the rulers of the Elymais with
Kamnaskires II Nikephoros minting coins there. The city may again have briefly returned to Seleucid rule, but starting with
Phraates II
Phraates II (also spelled Frahad II; ''Frahāt'') was king of the Parthian Empire from 132 BC to 127 BC. He was the son and successor of Mithridates I ().
Because he was still very young when he came to the throne, his mother Rinnu initially ru ...
(about 138–127 BC) to
Gotarzes II (about 40–51 AD) almost all rulers of the
Parthian Empire
The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power centered in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe ...
coined coins in the city, indicating that it was firmly in the hands of the Parthians at least during this period. The city however retained a considerable amount of independence and retained its Greek city-state organization well into the ensuing
Parthia
Parthia ( ''Parθava''; ''Parθaw''; ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemeni ...
n period. From second half of the first century it was probably partly governed by rulers of Elymais again, but it became Parthian once again in 215.
Susa was a frequent place of refuge for Parthian and later, the Persian
Sassanid
The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...
kings, as the
Romans sacked Ctesiphon five different times between 116 and 297 AD. Susa was briefly captured in 116 AD by the Roman emperor
Trajan
Trajan ( ; born Marcus Ulpius Traianus, 18 September 53) was a Roman emperor from AD 98 to 117, remembered as the second of the Five Good Emperors of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. He was a philanthropic ruler and a successful soldier ...
during the course of his
Parthian campaign. Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east.
Sassanid period
Suzan was conquered and destroyed in 224 AD by the Sassanid
Ardashir I
Ardashir I (), also known as Ardashir the Unifier (180–242 AD), was the founder of the Sasanian Empire, the last empire of ancient Iran. He was also Ardashir V of the Kings of Persis, until he founded the new empire. After defeating the last Par ...
, but rebuilt immediately thereafter, and perhaps even temporarily a royal residence. According to a later tradition,
Shapur I
Shapur I (also spelled Shabuhr I; ) was the second Sasanian Empire, Sasanian King of Kings of Iran. The precise dating of his reign is disputed, but it is generally agreed that he ruled from 240 to 270, with his father Ardashir I as co-regent u ...
is said to have spent his twilight years in the city, although this tradition is uncertain and perhaps refers more to
Shapur II.
Under the Sassanids, following the founding of
Gundeshapur
Gundeshapur (, ''Weh-Andiōk-Ŝābuhr''; New Persian: , ''Gondēshāpūr'') was the intellectual centre of the Sassanid Empire and the home of the Academy of Gundeshapur, founded by Sassanid Emperor Shapur I. Gundeshapur was home to a teaching hos ...
Susa slowly lost its importance. Archaeologically, the Sassanid city is less dense compared to the Parthian period, but there were still significant buildings, with the settlement extending over 400 hectares.
Susa was also still very significant economically and a trading center, especially in gold trading. Coins also continued to be minted in the city. The city had a Christian community in a separate district with a Nestorian bishop, whose last representative is attested to in 1265. Archaeologically a stucco panel with the image of a Christian saint has been found.
During the reign of Shapur II after Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in 312, and the identification of Christians as possible collaborators with the enemy Christians living in the Sasanian Empire were persecuted from 339 onwards. Shapur II also imposed a double tax on the Christians during his war campaign against the Romans. Following a rebellion of Christians living in Susa, the king destroyed the city in 339 using 300 elephants. He later had the city rebuilt and resettled with prisoners of war and weavers, which is believed to have been after his victory over the Romans in Amida in 359. The weaver produced silk brocade. He renamed it ''Eran-Khwarrah-Shapur'' ("Iran's glory
uilt byShapur").
Islamic period
During the
Muslim conquest of Persia
As part of the early Muslim conquests, which were initiated by Muhammad in 622, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered the Sasanian Empire between 632 and 654. This event led to the decline of Zoroastrianism, which had been the official religion of ...
an Arab army invaded Khuzistan under the command of
Abu Musa al-Ash'ari. After taking most of the smaller fortified towns the army captured
Tustar in 642 before proceeding to besiege Susa. A place of military importance, it also held the tomb of the Jewish prophet
Daniel.
Two stories are given in the Muslim sources of how the city fell. In the first, a Persian priest proclaimed from the walls that only a ''dajjal'' was fated to capture the city. A ''dajjal'' is an Islamic term for an ''
Al-Masih ad-Dajjal
Al-Masih ad-Dajjal (), otherwise referred to simply as the Dajjal, is an evil figure in Islamic eschatology who will pretend to be the promised Messiah and later claim to be God in Islam, God, appearing before the Judgement Day in Islam#Destructi ...
'', a false messiah, compatible to the
Antichrist
In Christian eschatology, Antichrist (or in broader eschatology, Anti-Messiah) refers to a kind of entity prophesied by the Bible to oppose Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ and falsely substitute themselves as a savior in Christ's place before ...
in Christianity. In everyday use, it also means "deceiver" or "imposter". Siyah, a Persian general who had defected to Muslim side, claimed that by converting to Islam he had turned his back on Zoroastrianism and was thus a ''dajjal''. Abu Musa agreed to Siyah's plan. Soon after as the sun came up one morning, the sentries on the walls saw a man in a Persian officer's uniform covered in blood lying on the ground before the main gate. Thinking it he had been left out overnight after a conflict the previous day, they opened the gate and some came out to collect him. As they approached, Siyah jumped up and killed them. Before the other sentries had time to react, Siyah and a small group of Muslim soldiers hidden nearby charged through the open gate. They held the gate open long enough for Muslim reinforcements to arrive and passing through the gate to take the city.
In the other story, once again the Muslims were taunted from the city wall that only an ''
Al-Masih ad-Dajjal
Al-Masih ad-Dajjal (), otherwise referred to simply as the Dajjal, is an evil figure in Islamic eschatology who will pretend to be the promised Messiah and later claim to be God in Islam, God, appearing before the Judgement Day in Islam#Destructi ...
'' could capture the city, and since there were none in the besieging army then they may as well give up and go home. One of the Muslim commanders was so angry and frustrated at this taunt that he went up to one of the city gates and kicked it. Instantly the chains snapped, the locks broke and it fell open.
Following their entry into the city, the Muslims killed all of the Persian nobles.
Once the city was taken, as Daniel () was not mentioned in the
Qur'an
The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...
, the initial reaction of the Muslim was to destroy the cult by confiscating the treasure that had stored at the tomb since the time of the Achaemenids. They then broke open the silver coffin and carried off the mummified corpse, removing from the corpse a signet ring, which carried an image of a man between two lions. However, upon hearing what had happened, the caliph
Umar
Umar ibn al-Khattab (; ), also spelled Omar, was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () and is regarded as a senior companion and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Mu ...
ordered the ring to be returned and the body reburied under the riverbed.
In time, Daniel became a Muslim cult figure and they as well as Christians began making pilgrimages to the site, despite several other places claiming to be the site of Daniel's grave.
Following the capture of Susa, the Muslims moved on to besiege
Gundeshapur
Gundeshapur (, ''Weh-Andiōk-Ŝābuhr''; New Persian: , ''Gondēshāpūr'') was the intellectual centre of the Sassanid Empire and the home of the Academy of Gundeshapur, founded by Sassanid Emperor Shapur I. Gundeshapur was home to a teaching hos ...
.
[
Susa recovered following its capture and remained a regional center of more than 400 hectares in size. A mosque was built, but also Nestorian bishops are still testifie. In addition, there was a Jewish community with its own synagogue.
The city continued to be a manufacturing center of luxury fabrics during this period. Archaeologically, the Islamic period is characterized mainly by its rich ceramics. Beth Huzaye (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province) had a significant Christian population during the first millennium, and was a diocese of the ]Church of the East
The Church of the East ( ) or the East Syriac Church, also called the Church of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, the Persian Church, the Assyrian Church, the Babylonian Church, the Chaldean Church or the Nestorian Church, is one of three major branches o ...
between the 5th and 13th centuries, in the metropolitan province of Beth Huzaye (Elam).
In 1218, the city was razed by invading Mongols
Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family o ...
and was never able to regain its previous importance. The city further degraded in the 15th century when the majority of its population moved to Dezful.
Today
Today the ancient center of Susa is unoccupied, with the population living in the adjacent modern Iranian town of Shush to the west and north of the historic ruins. Shush is the administrative capital of Shush County
Shush County () is in Khuzestan Province, Iran. Its capital is the city of Shush. The ancient city of Susa
Susa ( ) was an ancient city in the lower Zagros Mountains about east of the Tigris, between the Karkheh River, Karkheh and De ...
in Iran's Khuzestan
Khuzestan province () is one of the 31 Provinces of Iran. Located in the southwest of the country, the province borders Iraq and the Persian Gulf, covering an area of . Its capital is the city of Ahvaz. Since 2014, it has been part of Iran's ...
province. It had a population of 64,960 in 2005.
World Heritage listing
In July 2015, it was inscribed on the list of World Heritage Site
World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an treaty, international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural ...
s by UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
.
Gallery
File:ArtabanIIIGreekLetter.JPG, Letter in Greek of the Parthian king Artabanus II to the inhabitants of Susa in the 1st century AD (the city retained Greek institutions since the time of the Seleucid empire
The Seleucid Empire ( ) was a Greek state in West Asia during the Hellenistic period. It was founded in 312 BC by the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator, following the division of the Macedonian Empire founded by Alexander the Great ...
). Louvre Museum
The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...
.[Epigraphy of Later Parthia, «Voprosy Epigrafiki: Sbornik statei», 7, 2013, pp. 276-28]
/ref>
File:Rose cup Susa Louvre MAOS53.jpg, Glazed clay cup: Cup with rose petals, 8th–9th centuries
File:Unidentified selucid anthropoid sarcophagus.jpg, Anthropoid sarcophagus
A sarcophagus (: sarcophagi or sarcophaguses) is a coffin, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word ''sarcophagus'' comes from the Greek language, Greek wikt:σάρξ, σάρξ ...
File:Lion Darius Palace Louvre Sb3298.jpg, Lion on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great's palace
File:Male head wearing a head-band resembling king of Syria Antiochus III (223–187 BC), late 1st century BC–early 1st century AD, Louvre Museum (7462828632).jpg, Marble head representing Seleucid King Antiochus III
Antiochus III the Great (; , ; 3 July 187 BC) was the sixth ruler of the Seleucid Empire, reigning from 223 to 187 BC. He ruled over the region of Syria and large parts of the rest of West Asia towards the end of the 3rd century BC. Rising to th ...
who was born near Susa around 242 BC.
File:Palmtree vase Susa Louvre MAOS383.jpg, Glazed clay vase: Vase with palmtrees, 8th–9th centuries
File:Sphinx Darius Louvre.jpg, Winged sphinx
A sphinx ( ; , ; or sphinges ) is a mythical creature with the head of a human, the body of a lion, and the wings of an eagle.
In Culture of Greece, Greek tradition, the sphinx is a treacherous and merciless being with the head of a woman, th ...
from the palace of Darius the Great
Darius I ( ; – 486 BCE), commonly known as Darius the Great, was the third King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 522 BCE until his death in 486 BCE. He ruled the empire at its territorial peak, when it included much of West A ...
at Susa.
File:Daniel Barry Kent.JPG, Tomb of Daniel
File:Ninhursag1.jpg, Ninhursag
Ninḫursaĝ ( ''Ninḫarsang''; ), sometimes transcribed Ninursag, Ninḫarsag, or Ninḫursaĝa, also known as Damgalnuna or Ninmah, was the ancient Sumerian mother goddess of the mountains, and one of the seven great deities of Sumer. She ...
with the spirit of the forests next to the seven-spiked cosmic tree of life. Relief from Susa.
File:Tomb of Daniel.jpg, 19th-century engraving of Daniel's tomb in Susa, from ''Voyage en Perse Modern''e, by Flandin and Coste.
File:Archers frieze Darius 1st Palace Suse Louvre AOD 488 a.jpg, Archers frieze from Darius' palace at Susa. Detail of the beginning of the frieze, left. Louvre Museum
The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...
File:Torque Susa Louvre Sb2760.jpg, Ribbed torc
A torc, also spelled torq or torque, is a large rigid or stiff neck ring in metal, made either as a single piece or from strands twisted together. The great majority are open at the front, although some have hook and ring closures and a few hav ...
with lion heads, Achaemenid artwork, excavated by Jacques de Morgan
Jean-Jacques de Morgan (3 June 1857 – 14 June 1924) was a French mining engineer, geologist, and archaeologist. He was the director of antiquities in Egypt during the 19th century, and excavated in Memphis and Dahshur, providing many dra ...
, 1901, found in the Acropole Tomb
File:Shush Castle.JPG, Shush Castle, 2011
File:Children in Susa.JPG, Children in Susa
File:Terracotta herm Louvre Sb785.jpg, Herm
Herm (Guernésiais: , ultimately from Old Norse 'arm', due to the shape of the island, or Old French 'hermit') is one of the -4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, ...
pillar with Hermes, from the well of the "Dungeon" in Susa.
See also
* Abulites
*Achaemenid architecture
Achaemenid architecture includes all architectural achievements of the Achaemenid Empire, Achaemenid Persians manifesting in construction of spectacular cities used for governance and inhabitation (Persepolis, Susa, Ecbatana), temples made for wo ...
* Choqa Zanbil
*Elam
Elam () was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of modern-day southern Iraq. The modern name ''Elam'' stems fr ...
*History of Iran
The history of Iran (also known as Name of Iran, Persia) is intertwined with Greater Iran, which is a socio-cultural region encompassing all of the areas that have witnessed significant settlement or influence exerted by the Iranian peoples and ...
* Islamic ceramics of the Susa site
* List of cities of the ancient Near East
*List of oldest continuously inhabited cities
This is a list of present-day cities by the time period over which they have been continuously inhabited as a city. The age claims listed are generally disputed. Differences in opinion can result from different definitions of "city" as well as "c ...
* Muslim conquest of Khuzestan
* Short chronology timeline
Notes
References
*
Further reading
*
harvát, Petr, "Archaeology and social history: the Susa sealings, ca. 4000-2340 BC.", Paléorient, 57-63, 1988
* Clawson, H. Phelps, "Pottery of Susa I", Parnassus, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 26–27, 1939
*
*
* Le Breton, L., "The Early Periods at Susa, Mesopotamian Relations", Iraq, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 79–124, 1957
* Pelzel, Suzanne M., "Dating the Early Dynastic Votive Plaques from Susa", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 1–15, 1977
* Jean Perrot, "Le Palais de Darius à Suse. Une résidence royale sur la route de Persépolis à Babylone", SORBONNE PUPS, Paris, 2010
* Poebel, Arno, "The Acropolis of Susa in the Elamite Inscriptions", The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 125–40, 1933
* UNVALA, J. M., "Three Panels from Susa", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 179–85, 1928
*
* Woolley, C. Leonard, "The Painted Pottery of Susa", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1, pp. 35–50, 1928
Excavation reports
Although numerous excavation reports have been published so far, many excavations are not or only partially published. Above all, the found architecture was often presented only in short preliminary reports and plans.
* Pierre Amiet, "Glyptique susienne des origines à l'époque des Perses achéménides: cachets, sceaux-cylindres et empreintes antiques découverts à Suse de 1913 à 1967", Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran, Paris 1972.
* Elizabeth Carter, "Suse, Ville Royale", Paléorient, vol. 4, pp. 197–211, 1979 DOI: 10.3406/paleo.1978.4222
* Elizabeth Carter, "The Susa Sequence – 3000–2000 B. C. Susa, Ville Royale I", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 451–454, 1979
* Elizabeth Carter, "Excavations in Ville-Royale-I at Susa: The third Millennium B.C.", Cahiers de la DAFI, vol. 11, pp. 11–139, 1980
* Roman Ghirshman, "Cinq campagnes de fouilles a Suse (1946–1951)", In: Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale 46, pp 1–18, 1952
* Ghirshman, Roman, and M. J. STEVE, "SUSE CAMPAGNE DE L'HIVER 1964-1965: Rapport Préliminaire", Arts Asiatiques, vol. 13, pp. 3–32, 1966
* GHIRSHMAN, R., "SUSE CAMPAGNE DE L'HIVER 1965-1966 Rapport Préliminaire", Arts Asiatiques, vol. 15, pp. 3–27, 1967
* Florence Malbran-Labat, "Les inscriptions royales de Suse: briques de l'époque paléo-élamite à l 'empire néo-élamite", Paris 1995.
* Laurianne Martinez-Sève, "Les figurines de Suse", Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Paris 2002, .
* de Mecquenem, R., "LES DERNIERS RÉSULTATS DES FOUILLES DE SUSE", Revue Des Arts Asiatiques, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 73–88, 1929
* de MECQUENEM, R., "FOUILLES DE SUSE: CAMPAGNES DES ANNÉES 1914-1921-1922", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 109–40, 1922
Jacques de Morgan, "Histoire et travaux de la Délégation en Perse du Ministère de l'instruction publique, 1897-1905", E. Leroux, 1905
* Jacques de Morgan, G. Jéquier, G. Lampre, "Fouilles à Suse, 1897–1898 et 1898–1899", Paris 1900
* Perrot, Jean, et al., "Recherches Archéologiques a Suse et En Susiane En 1969 et En 1970", Syria, vol. 48, no. 1/2, pp. 21–51, 1971
* Georges Le Rider, "Suse sous les Séleucides et les Parthes: les trouvailles monétaires et l'histoire de la ville", Mémoires de la Délégation Archéologique en Iran, Paris 1965.
* Vincent Scheil, "Inscriptions of Achéménides à Suse. Actes juridiques susiens", Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique de Perse, vol. 21–24, Paris 1929–1933.
* Agnes Spycket, "Les figurines de Suse", Paris 1992.
* Marie-Joseph Steve, Hermann Gasche, "L'Acropole de Suse. Nouvelles fouilles (rapport préliminaire)", Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique de Perse vol. 46, Leiden 1971.
External links
*
"Early Works on the Acropolis at Susa" Expedition Magazine 10.4 1968
Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre - Metropolitan Museum - 1992
Aerial views of Susa at the Oriental Institute
Digital Images of Cuneiform Tablets from Susa – CDLI
*Hamid-Reza Hosseini
''Shush at the foot of Louvre''
(''Shush dar dāman-e Louvre
The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...
''), in Persian, Jadid Online, 10 March 2009.
Archaeological findings may push back Susa's history by millennia - Tehran Times - August 21, 2022
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Achaemenid cities
Archaeological sites in Iran
Book of Esther
Elam
Elamite cities
Former populated places in Khuzestan province
Hebrew Bible cities
Parthian cities
Populated places along the Silk Road
Sasanian cities
Seleucid colonies
Shush County
World Heritage Sites in Iran
Uruk period
Book of Jubilees
Buildings and structures on the Iran National Heritage List