Sultanate Of Massina

The Sultanate of Massina was a state covering much of the Inner Niger Delta in what is now Mali. From its founding around 1400 CE, it was generally a tributary of larger states, including the Mali Empire (14th century), the Songhai Empire (15th-16th centuries), the Arma (Moroccan) pashas of Tomboctou (17th century), and the Segou Empire (18th century). In 1818 the Sultanate was overthrown by a ''jihad'' led by Ahmadu Lobbo, who established the Caliphate of Hamdullahi.

Etymology

There are multiple theories for the origin of the name 'Massina'. One is that it was the name of a lake close to Keke, the first capital of the Sultanate near modern-day Tenenkou. Alternatively, 'Massina' could be related to the Imasna, an Afro-Berber group and the oldest ethnic strata within the population of Tichitt. 'Maasina' is an old Fula term for the Dhar Tichitt-Walata-Néma region in the Aoukar basin.

History

Fulani pastoralists began to enter the Inner Niger Delta in the 13th century, during the heyday of the Mali Empire, coming from the old Maasina.
Circa 1400 a group arrived from the Termess region, part of Kaniaga. They were led by Maghani, who brought his followers southeast after a dispute with his brother the sultan. They were welcomed by the Baghana-fari, governor of , and allowed to settle in the region between Mema and the Niger river. The Fula clans that migrated were the Jallobe and later the Sangare.

Under the Songhai

During the reign of Alioun II (1466-1480), Sonni Ali attacked Massina but was unable to subdue it. In 1494 Demba Dondi, brother of the reigning ''Fondoko'' Nia, allied with the Mali Empire against the Songhai, but was killed. Under Nia's rule Songhai authority was extended over Massina, and he transferred his capital from Keke to the Guimbala region. The ''Massina-mondyo'' was in charge of collecting taxes and tribute in the region on behalf of the Askia, and ensuring the loyalty of the leaders.

In 1582, brigands from Massina attacked a flotilla of boats belonging to the Songhai prince Al-Hajj, pillaging his belongings. Al-Hajj's older brother, Kurmina-fari Muhammad Benkan, devastated the region in revenge, killing many prominent Muslim clerics. The reigning Askia Daoud died soon after. ''Fondako'' Bubu Maryam was accused of plotting against the new Askia, Al-Hajj, and taken to Gao. He managed to convince the Askia of his loyalty, but remained in the capital to serve the ruler personally. Hammad-Amina was named ''Fondako'' in his place. Bubu Maryam would eventually die at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591.

Under the Arma

After Songhai's fall to the Moroccan invaders, Hammad-Amina had to navigate complicated and dangerous political waters. When Djenne came under attack from the ''Baghana-fari'' Bukar, he aided the Moroccans in suppressing the city's revolt and repelling the resistance. In late 1598, the Moroccan Pasha arrested the family of a prominent Islamic scholar who had been killed by the Moroccan troops. Hammad-Amina came to Timbuktu to try and intercede on their behald, but was himself arrested and imprisoned for a period. Upon his return home, he began ignoring Moroccan demands, and so a force of Arma arquebusiers, supported by the army of the puppet Askia, marched on Massina. Hammad-Amina recruited an army of Bambara mercenaries, but were defeated at Thulu Fina. Much of the ''fondakos family fell into Moroccan hands, but he and his generals managed to retreat to Diarra.

In April 1599, Mansa Mahmud IV of the Mali Empire, looking to take advantage of the chaos in the Niger river valley, attacked Djenne, with Hammad-Amina supporting him. Although the Malians were defeated, the victors focused on punishing the king of N'Goa, leaving Hammad-Amina free to find reinforcements. He defeated the Djenne garrison and the forces of his nephew, who the Arma had put in charge of Massina, at Tiyi, and forced them to accept his return to the throne.

In 1610 the Songhai government in exile made another stab at dislodging the Arma. Dendi-fari Bukar won a series of battles and made significant gains in Massina, prompting a series of rebellions against Moroccan rule in nearby cities. The ''fondoko'' refused to join in, though the region suffered heavily from Moroccan reprisals nevertheless.Kaba, Lansiné. “Archers, Musketeers, and Mosquitoes: The Moroccan Invasion of the Sudan and the Songhay Resistance (1591-1612).” The Journal of African History, vol. 22, no. 4, 1981, pp. 472. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/181298. Accessed 8 May 2024.

In 1627, Hamadou-Amina II became ''ardo'' and two years later refused to submit to the Moroccans. The Moroccan pasha led a military expedition against the Fulbe, but was defeated by Hamadou-Amina's guerilla tactics. He agreed to recognize Hamadou-Amina II as ardo if he would pay tribute, but the latter refused. In 1644, another pasha invaded. Hamadou-Amina won a victory at Saye, but was defeated and forced to flee. After rebuilding his forces he returned to defeated his cousin, who the Moroccans had installed as ''ardo'', and ruled until 1663.

Under the Bambara

In the early 1700s, Biton Coulibaly conquered Massina and brought it under the sway of the Bambara Segou Empire. Over time the common people came to increasingly resent the combined oppression of the Bambara, the Fula warlords, and the religious elite in Djenne. Charismatic preacher Ahmadu Lobbo used this discontent to build up a large base of support. In 1817 the authorities attempted to expel him from Djenne. One of Lobbo's followers encountered Giɗaaɗo, son of the ruling ''Arɗo mawdo'' Aamadu, in a market, who insulted him. Another follower returned to the market the next week, and when Giɗaaɗo refused to apologize, killed him. This set off a civil war in Massina.

Ardo Amadu sought the support of Da Monzon Diarra, ''faama'' of Segou, and Gelaajo, the pereejo (chief) of the Sidibe military aristocracy of Kounari. On March 21st 1818, the Segou army attacked Lobbo's small force before their allies arrived and were defeated. The victory massively boosted Lobbo's prestige and recruitment, and paralyzed the Massina aristocracy. Lobbo had taken control of Massina by mid-May 1818, founding the Caliphate of Hamdullahi.

Government

The Arma had little interest or capacity to govern the middle Niger valley, and left most affairs to the local leaders. In Massina, this meant Fulbe warlords known as ''ardo'en'' (sing.: ''ardo''). The ''ardo mawdo'' functioned as the Sultan of Massina, hailed from the Dikko clan, and was based in Ouro Ngiya near Lake Debo.

Rulers

Notes

References

Sources

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{{Mali topics

Massina Empire
Countries in precolonial Africa
Political history of Mali
States and territories disestablished in 1818
Sahelian kingdoms