Sulayman Pasha al-Adil ( – August 1819; given name also spelled ''Suleiman'' or ''Sulaiman'') was the
Ottoman governor of
Sidon Eyalet
The Eyalet of Sidon (; ) was an eyalet (also known as a ''beylerbeylik'') of the Ottoman Empire. In the 19th century, the eyalet extended from the border with Egypt to the Bay of Kisrawan, including parts of modern Israel and Lebanon.
Depending ...
between 1805 and 1819, ruling from his
Acre
The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...
headquarters. He also simultaneously served as governor of
Damascus Eyalet
Damascus Eyalet (; ) was an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire. Its reported area in the 19th century was . It became an eyalet after the Ottomans took it from the Mamluks following the 1516–1517 Ottoman–Mamluk War. By Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan ...
between 1810 and 1812. He was a ''
mamluk
Mamluk or Mamaluk (; (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural); translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave") were non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) enslaved mercenaries, slave-so ...
'' of his predecessor,
Jazzar Pasha
Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar (, c. 1720–30s7 May 1804) was the Acre-based Bosniak Ottoman governor of Sidon Eyalet from 1776 until his death in 1804 and the simultaneous governor of Damascus Eyalet in 1785–1786, 1790–1795, 1798–1799, and 1803 ...
. His rule was associated with decentralization, a reduction of Acre's military, and limits to his predecessors' cotton monopoly. Moreover, he oversaw a policy of non-interference with his deputy governors, such as
Muhammad Abu-Nabbut and
Mustafa Agha Barbar, and diplomacy with the autonomous
sheikh
Sheikh ( , , , , ''shuyūkh'' ) is an honorific title in the Arabic language, literally meaning "elder (administrative title), elder". It commonly designates a tribal chief or a Muslim ulama, scholar. Though this title generally refers to me ...
s of the various
Levantine regions where he held authority, including Emir
Bashir Shihab II
Bashir Shihab II (, also spelled Bachir Chehab II; 2 January 1767–1850) was a Lebanese people, Lebanese emir who ruled the Mount Lebanon Emirate, Emirate of Mount Lebanon in the first half of the 19th century. Born to a branch of the Shihab dy ...
and Musa Bey Tuqan. He exercised control over his domain largely through depending on the loyalty of his deputies, who also had been ''mamluks'' of Jazzar. In effect, Sulayman Pasha presided over the world's last functioning ''mamluk'' system.
Mamluk of Jazzar
Sulayman Pasha was of
Georgian origin and was likely born in the early 1760s.
[Philipp, 2001, p. 79.] He was purchased as a ''
mamluk
Mamluk or Mamaluk (; (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural); translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave") were non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) enslaved mercenaries, slave-so ...
'' (slave soldier) by
Jazzar Pasha
Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar (, c. 1720–30s7 May 1804) was the Acre-based Bosniak Ottoman governor of Sidon Eyalet from 1776 until his death in 1804 and the simultaneous governor of Damascus Eyalet in 1785–1786, 1790–1795, 1798–1799, and 1803 ...
either while the latter was in
Egypt
Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
or in his first years in Syria in the 1770s. He became a member of Jazzar's inner circle, which was composed of other ''mamluks'' including Ali Agha Khazindar, Salim Pasha al-Kabir (died in 1786) and Salim Pasha al-Saghir.
[Winter, 2004, pp]
319
ndash;320. When Jazzar was appointed ''wali'' (governor) of Damascus in 1785, the
Sublime Porte
The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( or ''Babıali''; ), was a synecdoche or metaphor used to refer collectively to the central government of the Ottoman Empire in Istanbul. It is particularly referred to the buildi ...
also appointed Mikdad Pasha as ''wali'' of
Tripoli. Jazzar then lobbied to replace the latter with Sulayman, who was appointed later that year. Sometime afterward, Sulayman was appointed by Jazzar as the ''
mutasallim'' (tax farmer and enforcer) of
Sidon
Sidon ( ) or better known as Saida ( ; ) is the third-largest city in Lebanon. It is located on the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast in the South Governorate, Lebanon, South Governorate, of which it is the capital. Tyre, Lebanon, Tyre, t ...
.
[Winter, 2004, pp.]
327
ndash;328.
Sulayman took part in the ''mamluk'' rebellion against Jazzar in 1789, allowing Sidon to be used as a headquarters for the rebellion. On 3 June, Sulayman and Salim Pasha al-Saghir, with some 1,200 of their troops, attempted to capture Acre from Jazzar. On the plains outside of the city, a battle was fought, although cannon fire from Acre's artillery forced Sulayman's troops to disperse.
Sulayman and Salim fled to
Mount Lebanon
Mount Lebanon (, ; , ; ) is a mountain range in Lebanon. It is about long and averages above in elevation, with its peak at . The range provides a typical alpine climate year-round.
Mount Lebanon is well-known for its snow-covered mountains, ...
and from there to
Damascus
Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
in a bid to raise a new army. The revolt personally offended Jazzar since he treated Sulayman and Salim deferentially, guaranteed their careers and enabled them to grow wealthy.
[Winter, 2004, p]
329
/ref> In 1801, Sulayman reestablished ties with Jazzar, who welcomed his return warmly, treating him "like a lost son", according to historian Michael Winter.
Jazzar died in April–May 1804 while Sulayman was commanding the Hajj
Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...
pilgrim caravan to Mecca on Jazzar's behalf (Jazzar was too sick to fulfill his duties as ''amir al-hajj
''Amir al-hajj'' ( or ; plural: ) was the position and title given to the commander of the annual Hajj pilgrim caravan by successive Muslim empires, from the 7th century until the 20th century. Since the Abbasid Caliphate, Abbasid period, there w ...
''). The Sublime Porte appointed Ibrahim Pasha Qataraghasi as Jazzar's replacement as the ''wali'' of Sidon and Damascus. However, Isma'il, an officer imprisoned by Jazzar, was freed from incarceration and assumed control over Acre in defiance of the Sublime Porte. Ibrahim besieged Acre beginning around June and was joined by Sulayman on his return from the Hajj. Ibrahim withdrew from the siege to make preparations for the next Hajj caravan scheduled in January 1805 and left Sulayman in command of the siege. In 1805, the Sublime Porte subsequently appointed Sulayman ''wali'' of Sidon to further motivate him to continue the siege. Later that year or in early 1806, Sulayman Pasha's forces defeated Isma'il when the latter attempted to lead a sortie
A sortie (from the French word meaning ''exit'' or from Latin root ''surgere'' meaning to "rise up") is a deployment or dispatch of one military unit, be it an aircraft, ship, or troops, from a strongpoint. The term originated in siege warf ...
from Acre against Sulayman's camp near Shefa-'Amr
Shefa-Amr or Shefar'am (; ) is an Arab city in the Northern District of Israel. In it had a population of with a Sunni Muslim majority and large Christian Arab and Druze minorities.
Etymology
Palmer writes that the name meant: "The margin ...
.
Ruler of Acre
As the Acre-based ''wali'' of Sidon, Sulayman proceeded to re-establish Jazzar's ''mamluk'' household, which had disintegrated during the 1789 rebellion. Among the most prominent of the ''mamluks'' was Ali Pasha (formerly Ali Agha) and Muhammad Abu-Nabbut. One of Sulayman's first actions as governor was ousting Muhammad Abu Marraq, the governor of Gaza and Jaffa
Jaffa (, ; , ), also called Japho, Joppa or Joppe in English, is an ancient Levantine Sea, Levantine port city which is part of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel, located in its southern part. The city sits atop a naturally elevated outcrop on ...
.[Winter, 2004, p]
331
Abu Marraq had provoked the ire of the Sublime Porte by failing to carry out imperial orders to march against Wahhabi
Wahhabism is an exonym for a Salafi revivalist movement within Sunni Islam named after the 18th-century Hanbali scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It was initially established in the central Arabian region of Najd and later spread to other ...
tribesmen invading the southern Syrian Desert
The Syrian Desert ( ''Bādiyat Ash-Shām''), also known as the North Arabian Desert, the Jordanian steppe, or the Badiya, is a region of desert, semi-desert, and steppe, covering about of West Asia, including parts of northern Saudi Arabia, ea ...
regions. Consequently, the Sublime Porte commissioned Sulayman to forcibly remove him from office. Sulayman dispatched Abu-Nabbut to capture Jaffa, which he did,[Mattar, 2005, p]
344
after a siege lasting until the second half of 1806, forcing Abu Marraq to flee.
Sulayman's victory further elevated his standing with the Sublime Porte, who rewarded Sulayman with a special ''waqf'' (trust) that gave him authority over Gaza, Jaffa and Jerusalem (in effect all of southwestern Palestine). Sulayman then appointed Abu-Nabbut governor of the Gaza Sanjak, which included Jaffa. In Jerusalem, shortly after the siege against Jaffa, popular riots broke out and the city's Damascus-appointed ''mutasallim'' (Jerusalem was part of Damascus Eyalet) was unable to suppress the riots. Sulayman dispatched one of his commanders, Muhammad Agha Abu Dhari'a, who managed to establish order and was subsequently appointed by Sulayman as ''mutasallim''. However, the assignment was short-lived as Sulayman did not challenge the ''wali'' of Damascus when the latter reasserted Damascene authority over Jerusalem and replaced Abu Dhari'a.
The siege against Jaffa was one of the few military actions undertaken by Sulayman, unlike Jazzar, who faced and suppressed numerous rebellions by local forces in Palestine and Mount Lebanon and forcibly exacted heavy tolls on the population. By contrast, military force played a relatively minor role during Sulayman's reign. Rather, Sulayman strove to maintain peace and security by mediating between rival sheikhs. Because of this reputation, he gained the nickname "al-Adil", which means "the Just".
Having substantially reduced the size of Acre's military's forces, partially because Acre's wealth from the cotton trade was diminishing and partially out of political preference, Sulayman ruled by diplomacy and interfered far less in the affairs of his deputy governors and in the affairs of the semi-autonomous sheikhs of Jabal Nablus
The Nablus Sanjak (; ) was an administrative area that existed throughout Ottoman rule in the Levant (1517–1917). It was administratively part of the Damascus Eyalet until 1864 when it became part of Syria Vilayet and then the Beirut Vilayet ...
.[Doumani, 1995, pp]
100
ndash;101. In the case of the latter, he lent his support to different rival factions (namely the Jarrar, Tuqan and Nimr families) at different stages, and often played the role of peacemaker in times of conflict between them. This marked a departure from Jazzar's centralization policies and the violence that was associated with his rule, hence his epithet "al-Jazzar" (the Butcher). Sulayman also appointed a local strongman, Mas'ud al-Madi of Ijzim, the ''mutasallim'' of the Atlit Atlit or Athlit may refer to:
Places
* Atlit, an historical fortified town in Israel, also known as Château Pèlerin
* Atlit (modern town), a nearby town in Israel
Media
*Athlit (album), ''Athlit'' (album), an ambient music album by Oöphoi
*Atli ...
coast that covered the area between Jaffa and Acre. Sulayman's inner circle consisted of Ali Pasha (died 1814), Haim Farhi (his Jew
Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, religion, and community are highly inte ...
ish vizier
A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
and financial adviser) and Ibrahim Awra (his Melkite
The term Melkite (), also written Melchite, refers to various Eastern Christian churches of the Byzantine Rite and their members originating in West Asia. The term comes from the common Central Semitic root ''m-l-k'', meaning "royal", referrin ...
chief scribe).
Under Farhi's guidance, Sulayman focused his rule on reinvigorating Acre's declining economy. This entailed a significant loosening of the cotton monopoly that his predecessors Jazzar and had established by relaxing controls over the price of cotton and giving the native merchants of Acre virtual ownership over the shops they leased from his government. Moreover, he ceased the extortion of merchants and the confiscation of their goods, acts that were prevalent during Jazzar's rule. In effect, Farhi and Sulayman were careful not to lose total control over the cotton trade, while significantly easing the pressure on merchants and the peasant suppliers. These policies also extended to the monopolies on olive oil and grain, the other two lucrative cash crops of Palestine and the surrounding region.
In 1808, he decommissioned his Albanian contingent, which was his most competent military unit. By then, the estimate of his troops, who were distributed between Gaza and Beirut
Beirut ( ; ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, just under half of Lebanon's population, which makes it the List of largest cities in the Levant region by populatio ...
, was between 1,000 and 2,000. In Acre itself, he maintained a guard of roughly 200 soldiers, in contrast to his deputy Abu-Nabbut of Jaffa, who had a force of over 500.
Governor of Damascus
In 1810, Sulayman and his allies in Mount Lebanon, Emir Bashir Shihab II
Bashir Shihab II (, also spelled Bachir Chehab II; 2 January 1767–1850) was a Lebanese people, Lebanese emir who ruled the Mount Lebanon Emirate, Emirate of Mount Lebanon in the first half of the 19th century. Born to a branch of the Shihab dy ...
and Sheikh Bashir Jumblatt, responded to an appeal by Kunj Yusuf Pasha, ''wali'' of Damascus, for military backing to counter an impending invasion of Damascus by Wahhabi tribesmen who had entered the Hauran
The Hauran (; also spelled ''Hawran'' or ''Houran'') is a region that spans parts of southern Syria and northern Jordan. It is bound in the north by the Ghouta oasis, to the northeast by the al-Safa field, to the east and south by the Harrat ...
plain south of the city. Sulayman assembled what was left of his troops, including Maghreb
The Maghreb (; ), also known as the Arab Maghreb () and Northwest Africa, is the western part of the Arab world. The region comprises western and central North Africa, including Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The Maghreb al ...
i, Kurdish, Turkish, Arab and Albanian soldiers, while Emir Bashir brought with him a multi-confessional force of Sunni
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...
and Shia Muslim
Shia Islam is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political Succession to Muhammad, successor (caliph) and as the spiritual le ...
, Druze
The Druze ( ; , ' or ', , '), who Endonym and exonym, call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn (), are an Arabs, Arab Eastern esotericism, esoteric Religious denomination, religious group from West Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic ...
and Christian warriors from Lebanon and the coalition mobilized at Tiberias
Tiberias ( ; , ; ) is a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee in northern Israel. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's Four Holy Cities, along with Jerusalem, Heb ...
. By the time they crossed the Jordan River
The Jordan River or River Jordan (, ''Nahr al-ʾUrdunn''; , ''Nəhar hayYardēn''), also known as ''Nahr Al-Sharieat'' (), is a endorheic river in the Levant that flows roughly north to south through the Sea of Galilee and drains to the Dead ...
and reached Quneitra
Quneitra (also Al Qunaytirah, Qunaitira, or Kuneitra; , ''al-Qunayṭrah'' or ''al-Qunayṭirah'' ) is the largely destroyed and abandoned capital of the Quneitra Governorate in south-western Syria. It is situated in a high valley in the Golan ...
, Kunj Yusuf sent them a request to withdraw on account of the Wahhabis' sudden retreat to the Hejaz
Hejaz is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes the majority of the western region of Saudi Arabia, covering the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif and Al Bahah, Al-B ...
.
Sulayman refused Kunj Yusuf's order and marched towards Damascus. Kunj Yusuf sent a force to stop them at Judaydat Artuz, but after a brief confrontation, Sulayman's forces defeated Kunj Yusuf's troops. Sulayman had received an approval from the Sublime Porte
The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( or ''Babıali''; ), was a synecdoche or metaphor used to refer collectively to the central government of the Ottoman Empire in Istanbul. It is particularly referred to the buildi ...
(Ottoman imperial government) to replace Kunj Yusuf, who had consistently failed to undertake his duty as ''amir al-hajj
''Amir al-hajj'' ( or ; plural: ) was the position and title given to the commander of the annual Hajj pilgrim caravan by successive Muslim empires, from the 7th century until the 20th century. Since the Abbasid Caliphate, Abbasid period, there w ...
'' and lead the annual Hajj
Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...
caravan to Mecca (due to Wahabbi raids). In addition to the offices of ''wali'' of Damascus and ''amir al-hajj'', Sulayman was also appointed ''wali'' of Tripoli and reconfirmed as ''wali'' of Sidon.
In May 1811, in a move to consolidate power, Wali Muhammad Ali
Muhammad Ali (; born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr.; January 17, 1942 – June 3, 2016) was an American professional boxer and social activist. A global cultural icon, widely known by the nickname "The Greatest", he is often regarded as the gr ...
massacred the ''mamluks'' of Egypt and effectively destroyed that province's ''mamluk'' system. A handful of ''mamluks'', including Amin Bey, escaped and made their way to Acre, where Sulayman Pasha put them into his service. The ''mamluks'' of Acre were perturbed by Muhammad Ali's action and viewed Acre as the last ''mamluk'' stronghold. In response to the May massacre, Sulayman, whose treasury had considerably grown due to grain sales to England, purchased hundreds of ''mamluks'' in the summer of 1812. His forces consequently swelled to about 2,500. However, the ''mamluk'' role in Sulayman's 500-strong cavalry was eclipsed by the Kurdish commanders Shamdin Agha, Ni'mat Agha and Ayalyaqin Agha and the 400-strong Bedouin
The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu ( ; , singular ) are pastorally nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia (Iraq). The Bedouin originated in the Sy ...
Hawwara irregular cavalry led by the Arab
Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world.
Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...
officers Musa Agha al-Hasi and Ali Abu Zayd Agha. The ''mamluks'' also played no role in the 200-strong infantry, which was commanded by the Albanian officer Muhammad Agha al-Nu'man of Tyre, nor with the roughly 700 artillerymen of Acre.[Winter, 2004, pp.]
333
ndash;334.
Instead of the military, Sulayman placed his ''mamluks'' in numerous political and administrative posts to ensure their loyalty and the smooth functioning of a system dependent on that loyalty. As ''wali'' of Damascus, he appointed the ''mamluks'' Uzun Ali al-Qasir as ''mutasallim'' of Hama
Hama ( ', ) is a city on the banks of the Orontes River in west-central Syria. It is located north of Damascus and north of Homs. It is the provincial capital of the Hama Governorate. With a population of 996,000 (2023 census), Hama is one o ...
, Ja'far Agha as ''mutasallim'' of Homs
Homs ( ; ), known in pre-Islamic times as Emesa ( ; ), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level, above sea level and is located north of Damascus. Located on the Orontes River, Homs is ...
, Darwish Agha as ''mutasallim'' of Damascus and Kunj Ahmad Agha as ''mutasallim'' of Jerusalem
Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
. He also appointed Musa Bey Tuqan as the ''mutasallim'' of Nablus. Ali Pasha supervised Acre on Sulayman's behalf, while the latter resided in Damascus.
Sulayman was replaced as ''wali'' of Damascus with Silahdar Süleyman Pasha in 1812. However, by then, the Sublime Porte allowed his annexation of most of the Tripoli Eyalet, including the Latakia Sanjak, to Sidon Eyalet, which he continued to govern.[Philipp, 2001, p]
82
/ref> Sidon Eyalet at that time had already been expanded during Jazzar's reign to include Gaza Sanjak. The sanjaks of Nablus, Jerusalem and Lajjun were still a part of Damascus Eyalet, although Sulayman, like his predecessors, wielded authority in these areas at Damascus's expense. He was twice briefly reappointed ''wali'' of Damascus, including in 1816 after Silahdar died, but this was an interim post to be held only until the arrival of the newly appointed governor, Salih Pasha.
Later years and death
Each time Sulayman was given the interim office of ''wali'' of Damascus it had occurred during the months before the Hajj when the ''wali'' of Damascus (who by imperial decree was also the ''amir al-hajj'', or "commander of the Hajj pilgrimage") would make his ''dawrah'' tour to collect the ''miri'' (funds for the pilgrimage caravan) from the various districts. This was often an arduous process in the semi-autonomous regions, particularly in Jabal Nablus, where successive Ottoman governors failed to assert their authority. Through diplomatic relations, particularly his relationship with the Tuqan family, Sulayman was able to collect these funds and thus boost his authority over the central mountainous areas of Palestine, which were officially outside of Sidon's jurisdiction.
In 1817, the Tuqans attempted to overtake their rivals, the Nimr family, in Nablus city, prompting a violent backlash from all of the rural sheikhs of Jabal Nablus, including the Jarrar, Abd al-Hadi and Qasim families, who backed the Nimrs. This resulted in a civil war in Jabal Nablus with a stalemate marked by heavy casualties on both sides. Sulayman traditionally backed the Tuqans, although his scribe Ibrahim al-Awra asserted that he started to lean towards the side of the Jarrars and Abd al-Hadis, likely in order to create a balance of power in Nablus that he could still influence and manage, rather than encourage a strong singular Nabulsi authority. Thus, Sulayman withheld tangible support for Musa Bey Tuqan and instead opened negotiations between the warring factions at his Acre headquarters. He managed to secure a peace between Musa Bey and the Jarrar and Abd al-Hadi families later that year. By July 1818, through his offices with the mufti
A mufti (; , ) is an Islamic jurist qualified to issue a nonbinding opinion ('' fatwa'') on a point of Islamic law (''sharia''). The act of issuing fatwas is called ''iftāʾ''. Muftis and their ''fatāwa'' have played an important role thro ...
(leading Muslim scholar) of Nablus, he brought the Nimr family into the peace arrangements as well. The agreement entailed a large payment of blood money from the Tuqans to the other families, but with the understanding that Musa Bey would remain ''mutasallim'' of Nablus.
With the death of his deputy Ali Pasha Khazindar in 1814 and Farhi's opposition to Abu-Nabbut of Jaffa, Ali Pasha's son, Abdullah Pasha, who Farhi greatly favored, emerged as the chosen successor of Sulayman. The latter set a number of ground rules with the then-adolescent Abdullah. Among these were that Abdullah was not to have his own office in Sulayman's headquarters like Ali Pasha, nor was he to have his hand kissed by others or to publicly eat and drink with Sulayman. Sulayman became ill and died in August 1819 and was buried alongside Jazzar in the courtyard of the Jazzar Mosque in Acre. Sulayman was officially succeeded by Abdullah in January 1820, after several months of Farhi negotiating with and bribing the officials of the Sublime Porte to make the appointment. Farhi, who believed he could wield power through Abdullah, was strangled and thrown from Acre's walls into the sea on Abdullah's orders several months after taking office.
Building works
Sulayman did not launch major commercial building projects in Acre like Jazzar. In 1817 he had Zahir al-Umar's ''souk
A bazaar or souk is a marketplace consisting of multiple small stalls or shops, especially in the Middle East, the Balkans, Central Asia, North Africa and South Asia. They are traditionally located in vaulted or covered streets that have doors ...
'' (bazaar) rebuilt after it was destroyed by a fire. It has since become known as Souk al-Abyad. The Sinan Mosque of Acre, which had been the only mosque in the city in 1700, was rebuilt by Sulayman. It is also known as the Bahr Mosque (Sea Mosque).[Philipp, 2001, pp.]
25
ndash;26. In 1815 he restored the Kabri aqueduct to Acre which had been built by Jazzar but destroyed during Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...
's 1799 siege. In 1810, Sulayman built a ''khan'' (caravanserai
A caravanserai (or caravansary; ) was an inn that provided lodging for travelers, merchants, and Caravan (travellers), caravans. They were present throughout much of the Islamic world. Depending on the region and period, they were called by a ...
) for the donkey market in Acre. Sulayman also invested his own money to fund several renovation works in Jerusalem
Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
and its vicinity. Among the projects was the restoration of the al-Aqsa Mosque
The Aqsa Mosque, also known as the Qibli Mosque or Qibli Chapel is the main congregational mosque or Musalla, prayer hall in the Al-Aqsa mosque compound in the Old City (Jerusalem), Old City of Jerusalem. In some sources the building is also n ...
in 1816.
Sulayman ensures domestic security along the main roads of Sidon Eyalet partly due to the construction of watchtowers at several points along the highways. The constructions were undertaken by Sulayman in 1813, as well as by his local deputies. The roads largely remained in a state of disrepair. Towards the end of his rule, Sulayman attempted to improve the navigability of the roads by widening the mountainous path through Ras al-Naqoura and constructing a bridge over the Zahrani River
The Zahrani () is a river in Southern Lebanon. It is located south of Sidon. Zahrani (زهراني) is the adjective form of the noun Zahran (زهران), which means flowering or blossoming in Arabic. This river irrigates most of Jabal Rihane an ...
.[Philipp, 2001, p. 15.]
References
Bibliography
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Sulayman Pasha Adil
1760s births
1819 deaths
19th-century people from the Ottoman Empire
Mamluks
Ottoman governors of Damascus
Ottoman governors of Sidon
Georgians from the Ottoman Empire
18th-century slaves in the Ottoman Empire
Egyptian slaves