The Sulawesi montane rain forests is a tropical moist forest

ecoregion An ecoregion (ecological region) is an ecological and geographic area that exists on multiple different levels, defined by type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and c ...

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...

. It includes the highlands of

Sulawesi Sulawesi ( ), also known as Celebes ( ), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the List of islands by area, world's 11th-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Min ...

Geography

Sulawesi, with an area of 180,681 km², is the fourth-largest island in Indonesia, and the eleventh-largest in the world. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas: the northern

Minahasa Peninsula The Minahasa Peninsula, also spelled Minahassa, or the Northern Sulawesi Peninsula is one of the four principal peninsulas on the Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between ...

, the East Peninsula, the

South Peninsula The South Peninsula is one of the four principal peninsulas on the island of Sulawesi, stretching south from the central part of the island. It is part of the province of South Sulawesi. The southern peninsula is the most densely populated penins ...

, and the Southeast Peninsula. The island is mountainous, and the highest peak is

Mount Latimojong Latimojong (Indonesian: Gunung Latimojong), also known by its peak name Rantemario, is a mountain located in the province of South Sulawesi, Sulawesi, Indonesia. At , it is the highest mountain on the island, although some sources state Mount Ra ...

at 3,478 meters. Approximately 40% of Sulawesi's land area is in the montane rain forests ecoregion; the surrounding lowlands are in the

Sulawesi lowland rain forests The Sulawesi lowland rain forests is a tropical moist forest ecoregion in Indonesia. The ecoregion includes the lowlands of Sulawesi and neighboring islands. Geography Sulawesi is the largest island in the ecoregion, with an area of 180,681&nbs ...

ecoregion. The islands that make up the ecoregion are part of

Wallacea Wallacea is a biogeography, biogeographical designation for a group of mainly list of islands of Indonesia, Indonesian islands separated by deep-water straits from the Asian and Australia (continent), Australian continental shelf, continental ...

, a group of islands that are part of the

Australasian realm The Australasian realm is one of eight biogeographic realms that is coincident with, but not (by some definitions) the same as, the geographical region of Australasia. The realm includes Australia, the island of New Guinea (comprising Papua Ne ...

, but were never joined to either the Australian or Asian continents. The islands of Wallacea are home to a mix of plants and animals from both terrestrial realms, and have many unique species that evolved in isolation.Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). ''Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment.'' Washington, DC: Island Press. The

Makassar Strait Makassar Strait () is a strait between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. To the north it joins the Celebes Sea, while to the south it meets the Java Sea. To the northeast, it forms the Sangkulirang Bay south of the Mangkalihat P ...

separates Sulawesi from

Borneo Borneo () is the List of islands by area, third-largest island in the world, with an area of , and population of 23,053,723 (2020 national censuses). Situated at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, it is one of the Greater Sunda ...

to the west; the strait is part of the

Wallace Line The Wallace Line or Wallace's Line is a faunal boundary line drawn in 1859 by the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace and named by the English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley. It separates the biogeographic realms of Asia and 'Wallacea', a ...

, which demarcates the western boundary of Wallacea. Borneo and the other Indonesian islands west of Sulawesi are part of

Sundaland Sundaland (also called Sundaica or the Sundaic region) is a biogeographical region of Southeast Asia corresponding to a larger landmass that was exposed throughout the last 2.6 million years during periods when sea levels were lower. It inc ...

, and were connected to the Asian continent when sea levels were lower during the ice ages.

Climate

The ecoregion has a wet tropical montane climate.

Flora

The main plant communities are lower montane rain forest, upper montane rain forest, and sub-alpine forests. The forests generally form a closed canopy, and height decreases with elevation. Lower montane rain forest, or sub-montane forest, ranges from 1000 to 1500 meters elevation. Trees in the beech family (

Fagaceae The Fagaceae (; ) are a family of flowering plants that includes beeches, chestnuts and oaks, and comprises eight genera with around 1,000 or more species. Fagaceae in temperate regions are mostly deciduous, whereas in the tropics, many species ...

) are predominant, including four species of ''

Lithocarpus ''Lithocarpus'' is a genus in the beech family, Fagaceae. Trees in this genus are commonly known as the stone oaks and differ from ''Quercus'' primarily because they produce insect-pollinated flowers on erect spikes and the female flowers hav ...

'' and two species of ''

Castanopsis ''Castanopsis'', commonly called chinquapin or chinkapin, is a genus of evergreen trees belonging to the beech family, Fagaceae. The genus contains about 140 species, which are today restricted to tropical and subtropical eastern Asia. The Engli ...

'' ('' Castanopsis acuminatissima'' and '' C. buruana''). Other trees include ''

Eugenia ''Eugenia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the myrtle family Myrtaceae. It has a worldwide, although highly uneven, distribution in tropical and subtropical regions. The bulk of the approximately 1,100 species occur in the New World tropics, ...

'', along with trees in the myrtle family (

Myrtaceae Myrtaceae (), the myrtle family, is a family of dicotyledonous plants placed within the order Myrtales. Myrtle, pōhutukawa, bay rum tree, clove, guava, acca (feijoa), allspice, and eucalyptus are some notable members of this group. All ...

), laurel family (

Lauraceae Lauraceae, or the laurels, is a plant Family (biology), family that includes the bay laurel, true laurel and its closest relatives. This family comprises about 2850 known species in about 45 genus (biology), genera worldwide. They are dicotyled ...

), and tea family (

Theaceae Theaceae (), the tea family, is a family of flowering plants comprising shrubs and trees, including the economically important tea plant, and the ornamental camellias. It can be described as having from seven to 40 genera, depending on the sour ...

) and the

conifer Conifers () are a group of conifer cone, cone-bearing Spermatophyte, seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the phylum, division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a sin ...

s '' Agathis dammara'' and ''

Phyllocladus ''Phyllocladus'', the celery pines, is a small genus of conifers, now usually placed in the family Podocarpaceae.James E. Eckenwalder. 2009. ''Conifers of the World''. Timber Press: Portland, OR, USA. .'' ''Species occur mainly in New Zealand, ...

''.

Epiphyte An epiphyte is a plant or plant-like organism that grows on the surface of another plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water (in marine environments) or from debris accumulating around it. The plants on which epiphyt ...

s including

orchid Orchids are plants that belong to the family Orchidaceae (), a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Orchids are cosmopolitan plants that are found in almost every habitat on Eart ...

s are common. In the mid-montane forests (1500-2000 meters elevation) Fagaceae, especially '' Lithocarpus menadoensis'' and '' L. celebicus'', Myrtaceae, and ''Agathis'' are predominant.Culmsee, H., Pitopang, R., Mangopo, H. et al. Tree diversity and phytogeographical patterns of tropical high mountain rain forests in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodivers Conserv 20, 1103–1123 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0019-y Upper montane forests are characterized by conifers, including species of ''

Agathis ''Agathis'', commonly known as kauri or dammara, is a genus of evergreen coniferous trees, native to Australasia and Southeast Asia. It is one of three extant genera in the family Araucariaceae, alongside ''Wollemia'' and ''Araucaria'' (being ...

Podocarpus ''Podocarpus'' () is a genus of conifers, the most numerous and widely distributed of the podocarp family, the Podocarpaceae. ''Podocarpus'' species are evergreen shrubs or trees, usually from tall, known to reach at times. The cones have ...

Dacrycarpus ''Dacrycarpus'' is a genus of conifers belonging to the Family (biology), family Podocarpaceae.Christopher N. Page. 1990. "Podocarpaceae" pages 332-346. In: Klaus Kubitzki (general editor); Karl U. Kramer and Peter S. Green (volume editors) ''The ...

Dacrydium ''Dacrydium'' is a genus of conifers belonging to the podocarp family Podocarpaceae. Sixteen species of evergreen Plant sexuality, dioecious trees and shrubs are presently recognized. The genus was first described by Solander in 1786, and former ...

'', and ''Phyllocladus'', together with Myrtaceae and the shrubs ''

Rhododendron ''Rhododendron'' (; : ''rhododendra'') is a very large genus of about 1,024 species of woody plants in the Ericaceae, heath family (Ericaceae). They can be either evergreen or deciduous. Most species are native to eastern Asia and the Himalayan ...

Vaccinium ''Vaccinium'' is a common and widespread genus of shrubs or dwarf shrubs in the heath family (Ericaceae). The fruits of many species are eaten by humans and some are of commercial importance, including the cranberry, blueberry, bilberry (wh ...

Gaultheria ''Gaultheria'' is a genus of about 283 species of shrubs in the family Ericaceae. The name commemorates Jean François Gaultier of Quebec, an honour bestowed by the Scandinavian Pehr Kalm in 1748 and taken up by Carl Linnaeus in his '. These pl ...

'', and '' Tasmannia piperita''. Fagaceae are less common than in the lower-elevation forests. Mosses become abundant over 2000 meters elevation. Sub-alpine communities form above 3200 meters elevation, with low trees and shrubs, principally ''Rhododendron, Decaspermum'', and ''

Hedyotis ''Hedyotis'' (starviolet) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. Many species of this genus such as ''Hedyotis biflora, H. corymbosa'' and ''H. diffusa'' are well known medicinal plants. ''Hedyotis'' is native to tropical and sub ...

'', along with the lower shrubs ''

'' and '' Acrothamnus suaveolens''. The trees and shrubs are festooned with lichens. Herbs include the daisy '' Keysseria'', the ginger ''

Alpinia ''Alpinia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the ginger family, Zingiberaceae. Species are native to Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands, where they occur in tropical and subtropical climates.Poa ''Poa'' is a genus of about 570 species of Poaceae, grasses, native to the temperate regions of both hemispheres. Common names include meadow-grass (mainly in Europe and Asia), bluegrass (mainly in North America), tussock (some New Zealand spe ...

'' and ''

Agrostis ''Agrostis'' (bent or bentgrass) is a large and very nearly Cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan genus of plants in the Poaceae, grass family, found in nearly all the countries in the world. It has been bred as a Genetically modified organis ...

''.Tony Whitten, Greg S. Henderson (2012) ''Ecology of Sulawesi''. Tuttle Publishing, Jun 19, 2012.

Fauna

The ecoregion is home to 102 mammal species, a third of which are endemic or near-endemic. 24 mammal species are

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...

to the ecoregion, and 10 are near-endemic. Larger mammals include two pigs, the

Celebes warty pig The Celebes warty pig (''Sus celebensis''), also called Sulawesi warty pig or Sulawesi pig, is a species in the pig genus ('' Sus'') that lives on Sulawesi in Indonesia. It survives in most habitats and can live in altitudes of up to . It has bee ...

(''Sus celebensis'') and

North Sulawesi babirusa The North Sulawesi babirusa (''Babyrousa celebensis'') is a pig-like animal native to Sulawesi and some nearby islands ( Lembeh, Buton and Muna) in Indonesia. It has two pairs of large tusks composed of enlarged canine teeth. The upper canines ...

(''Babyrousa celebensis''). The Celebes warty pig lives in the lower montane and lowland rain forests of Sulawesi and other islands of Wallacea. The North Sulawesi babirusa lives in both the montane and lowland rain forests of northern and central Sulawesi. The endemic

Mountain anoa The mountain anoa ''(Bubalus quarlesi)'' also known as Quarle's anoa, is a species of buffalo endemic to Sulawesi. Its closest relative is the lowland anoa, and it is still a debate as to whether the two are the same species or not. It is also r ...

(''Bubalus quarlesi'') is a dwarf buffalo which stands only 70 cm (28 in) high. The Celebes rusa deer (''Rusa timorensis macassaricus'') is a subspecies of the Javan rusa, which may have been introduced from Sundaland to Sulawesi by humans in ancient times. There are two endemic arboreal primates,

Dian's tarsier Dian's tarsier (''Tarsius dentatus''), also known as the Diana tarsier, is a nocturnal primate endemic to central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Its head-body length is and it has a tail of . Dian's tarsier lives in rainforests. It was formerly called ''T ...

(''Tarsius dentatus'') and the

Pygmy tarsier The pygmy tarsier (''Tarsius pumilus''), also known as the mountain tarsier or the lesser spectral tarsier, is a nocturnal primate found in central Sulawesi, Indonesia, in an area with lower vegetative species diversity than the lowland tropical ...

(''Tarsius pumilus)''. The majority of endemic species are rodents, including three

squirrel Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae (), a family that includes small or medium-sized rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (including chipmunks and prairie dogs, among others), and flying squirrel ...

s and 17 Murid rodents: * montane long-nosed squirrel (''Hyosciurus heinrichi'') * secretive dwarf squirrel (''Prosciurillus abstrusus'') * Weber's dwarf squirrel (''Prosciurillus weberi'') * little soft-furred rat (''Rattus mollicomulus'') * opossum rat (''Rattus marmosurus'') *

Dollman's spiny rat Dollman's spiny rat or Dollman's Sulawesi Maxomys (''Maxomys dollmani'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found only on Sulawesi Sulawesi ( ), also known as Celebes ( ), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Su ...

(''Maxomys dollmani'') * Watts's spiny rat (''Maxomys wattsi'') * Celebes shrew-rat (''Crunomys celebensis'') * long-headed hill rat (''Bunomys prolatus'') * fraternal hill rat (''Bunomys fratrorum'') * Heinrich's hill rat (''Bunomys heinrichi'') *

inland hill rat The inland hill rat (''Bunomys penitus'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found only in central and southern Sulawesi, Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Ocea ...

(''Bunomys penitus'') * Sulawesi soft-furred rat (''Eropeplus canus'') * elegant margareta rat (''Margaretamys elegans'') * little margareta rat (''Margaretamys parvus'') * Salokko rat) (''Taeromys arcuatus'') * Sulawesi montane rat (''Taeromys hamatus'') *

Sulawesian shrew rat The Sulawesian shrew rat (''Melasmothrix naso'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is the only species in the genus ''Melasmothrix''. It is found only in central Sulawesi Sulawesi ( ), also known as Celebes ( ), is an island ...

(''Melasmothrix naso'') * Tate's shrew rat (''Tateomys rhinogradoides'') *

long-tailed shrew rat The long-tailed shrew rat (''Tateomys macrocercus'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found only in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania ...

(''Tateomys macrocercus'') Another ten species are Sulawesi endemics, which live in both the montane and lowland rain forests ecoregions: * Sulawesi palm civet (''Macrogalidia musschenbroekii'') * Elongated shrew (''Crocidura elongata'') * Sulawesi shrew (''Crocidura lea'') * Sulawesi tiny shrew (''Crocidura levicula'') * Crested roundleaf bat (''Hipposideros inexpectatus'') * Minahassa pipistrelle (''Pipistrellus minahassae'') * Gaskell's false serotine (''Hesperoptenus gaskelli'') *

Yellow-tailed rat The yellow-tailed rat (''Rattus xanthurus'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found only in northeastern Sulawesi, Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, b ...

(''Rattus xanthurus'') *

Celebes crested macaque The Celebes crested macaque (''Macaca nigra''), also known as the crested black macaque, Sulawesi crested macaque, or the black ape, is an Old World monkey that lives in the tropical regions of north Sulawesi. Description Locally known as ''yaki' ...

(''Macaca nigra'') *

(''Babyrousa celebensis'') The

Bola Batu babirusa ''Babyrousa bolabatuensis'', the Bola Batu babirusa, is a species of babirusa from the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. It was first described in 1950 as a subspecies of ''Babyrousa babyrussa'', then the only recognized species of babirusa, and ra ...

(''Babyrousa bolabatuensis''), known only from bones, is recognized as a separate species. No living individuals have been recorded, and the species may be extinct. The ecoregion is home to 168 bird species. 19 species are endemic to the ecoregion, and another 23 are near-endemic.

Protected areas

A 2017 assessment found that 9,066 km², or 12%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Protected areas in or partly in the ecoregion include: * Gunung Ambang Nature Recreation Park * Panua Nature Reserve * Gunung Lokon Nature Reserve * Gunung Sojol Nature Reserve * Pegunungan Faruhumpenai Nature Reserve * Pangi Binangga Nature Reserve * Pamona Nature Reserve * Gunung Dako Nature Reserve * Tinombala Nature Reserve * Faruhumpenai Nature Reserve *

Lore Lindu National Park Lore Lindu National Park is a protected area of forest on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, in the province of Central Sulawesi. The List of national parks of Indonesia, Indonesian national park is 2,180 km2 covering both lowland and mont ...

Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park is a national park on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, in the province of South East Sulawesi. It was declared in 1989 and has an area of 1,050 km². The park ranges from sea level to an altitude of 981 m. ...

External links

Sulawesi endemic bird area (Birdlife International)

References

{{reflist Australasian ecoregions Ecoregions of Indonesia Ecoregions of Malesia Flora of Sulawesi Montane forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Wallacea