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The Sokoto River, (formerly known as Gulbi 'n Kebbi), is a river in north-west
Nigeria Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It covers an area of . With Demographics of Nigeria, ...
and a tributary of the
River Niger The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mali, Nige ...
. The river's source is near
Funtua Funtua is a local government area in Katsina State, Nigeria, and is headquartered in the town of Funtua on the A126 highway. It is one of the premier local governments in Nigeria created after the local government reforms in 1976. It is the he ...
in the south of
Katsina State Katsina State ( ; 𞤤𞤫𞤴𞤣𞤭 𞤳𞤢𞥁𞤭𞤲𞤢) is a state in the northwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It is bordered to the west by Zamfara State, to the east by Kano and Jigawa states, and to the south by Kaduna St ...
, some in a straight line from
Sokoto Sokoto (Hausa language, Hausa: ; Fulfulde, Fula: , ''Leydi Sokoto'') is one of the 36 states of Nigeria, located in the extreme northwest of the country. It is bounded by Niger, Republic of the Niger to the north and west for 363 km (226 m ...
. It flows north-west passing
Gusau Gusau is a city in northwestern Nigeria. It is the capital of Zamfara State and also the name of the state's Local government areas of Nigeria#Zamfara State, Local Government Area of Gusau, which has an area of ² and a population of 383,162 as ...
in
Zamfara State Zamfara (; ; Adlam script, Adlam: ) is a States of Nigeria, state in northwestern Nigeria. The capital of Zamfara state is Gusau and its current List of Governors of Zamfara State, governor is Dauda Lawal. Until 1996, the area was part of Soko ...
, where the Gusau Dam forms a reservoir that supplies the city with water. Further downstream the river enters
Sokoto State Sokoto ( Hausa: ; Fula: , ''Leydi Sokoto'') is one of the 36 states of Nigeria, located in the extreme northwest of the country. It is bounded by Republic of the Niger to the north and west for 363 km (226 miles), and the states of Zamf ...
where it passes by
Sokoto Sokoto (Hausa language, Hausa: ; Fulfulde, Fula: , ''Leydi Sokoto'') is one of the 36 states of Nigeria, located in the extreme northwest of the country. It is bounded by Niger, Republic of the Niger to the north and west for 363 km (226 m ...
and is joined by the Rima River, then turning south and flowing through Birnin Kebbi in
Kebbi State Kebbi State (; Fulfulde: Leydi Kebbi 𞤤𞤫𞤴𞤣𞤭 𞤳𞤫𞤦𞥆𞤭) is a state in northwestern Nigeria, bordered to the east and north by the states of Sokoto and Zamfara, and to the south by Niger State while its western border ...
. About south of Birnin Kebbi, it reaches its confluence with the
Niger River The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mali, Nige ...
. The plains around the river are widely cultivated and the river used as a source of irrigation. The river is also an important means of transport. The Bakolori Dam, about upstream from
Sokoto Sokoto (Hausa language, Hausa: ; Fulfulde, Fula: , ''Leydi Sokoto'') is one of the 36 states of Nigeria, located in the extreme northwest of the country. It is bounded by Niger, Republic of the Niger to the north and west for 363 km (226 m ...
, is a major reservoir on the Sokoto River. It has had significant impact on downstream floodplain cultivation.


Pollution

Toxic chemicals and biological agents that are present in groundwater in excess of what is normally present in the water are referred to as "water pollution" and could be
hazard A hazard is a potential source of harm. Substances, events, or circumstances can constitute hazards when their nature would potentially allow them to cause damage to health, life, property, or any other interest of value. The probability of that ...
ous to the environment and/or human health. Chemicals that have been added to water bodies as a result of other human activities can also be considered a form of water pollution. No matter how much harm they may do to the environment and human health, any amount of toxic substances pollutes the water.


Climate

One of the hottest cities in Nigeria is Sokoto, with average temperature of 28.3 °C (82.9 °F), the daytime temperatures are most of the year generally under 40 °C (104.0 °F), the months that are slightly warm are February to April where the temperature is under 40 °C (104.0 °F).


Sites suitable for water storage in Sokoto Basin

In this review, destinations reasonable for area of water stockpiling structures were depicted in the Sokoto-Rima bowl by joining eight variables considered significant in appropriateness examination for
water Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and Color of water, nearly colorless chemical substance. It is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known liv ...
capacity structures. The elements considered are
land Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of Earth not submerged by the ocean or another body of water. It makes up 29.2% of Earth's surface and includes all continents and islands. Earth's land sur ...
use/cover,
soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, water, and organisms that together support the life of plants and soil organisms. Some scientific definitions distinguish dirt from ''soil'' by re ...
,
geography Geography (from Ancient Greek ; combining 'Earth' and 'write', literally 'Earth writing') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding o ...
, slant, waste thickness, lineament thickness, distance to seepage and
precipitation In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls from clouds due to gravitational pull. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, rain and snow mixed ("sleet" in Commonwe ...
. The elements were characterized with each class allocated inclination esteem in view of experiences from past examinations and information on the review region. The elements were coordinated through weighted overlay investigation utilizing variables' loads registered from Logical Order Interaction. The consequence of the reasonableness investigation showed that 3% (131.89 km2) area of Sokoto-Rima bowl is viewed as exceptionally appropriate, 9% (486.19 km2) of the bowl region is modestly appropriate, 11% (596.05 km2) of the bowl region have low steadiness for siting water capacity structures while 77% (3967.62 km2) of the bowl isn't appropriate. Further mix of appropriateness layer, seepage organization, cross-segment diagram produced from computerized height model and located Unpredictable Organization (TIN) empower determination of six expected locales for which boundaries, for example, base rise, outlet height, surface region, stockpiling limit and flood degree were figured. Changing example of precipitation arising all over the planet show that environmental change is as of now a reality (Dore, 2005). Expanded warming causes higher vanishing, thus more surface drying, which builds span and force of dry season (Kevin, 2005). The water-holding limit of air anyway increments by roughly 7% per 1 °C warming, which causes expanded water fume in the environment, and this gives the best impact on precipitation. Any upset condition of the air, particularly as influencing the world's surface, provided by expanded dampness, produce more extreme precipitation occasions which are currently normal event, even in districts where all out precipitation is diminishing. This has led to increments
flood A flood is an overflow of water (list of non-water floods, or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are of significant con ...
risk. This changing precipitation design have been in numerous areas, with expanded dryness in dry regions (by and large all through the subtropics) and wet regions becoming wetter, especially in mid to high scopes (Kevin, 2005) In Nigeria,
environmental Environment most often refers to: __NOTOC__ * Natural environment, referring respectively to all living and non-living things occurring naturally and the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism ...
change is having an overflow of immediate and roundabout effects on water assets. These incorporate dry spell, desertification evaporating of water bodies and
glimmer In bioinformatics, GLIMMER (Gene Locator and Interpolated Markov ModelER) is used to gene prediction, find genes in prokaryotic DNA. "It is effective at finding genes in bacteria, archea, viruses, typically finding 98-99% of all relatively long ge ...
flood in the northern piece of the country, while the southern part have been engaging the issue of
ocean The ocean is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of Earth. The ocean is conventionally divided into large bodies of water, which are also referred to as ''oceans'' (the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Indian, Southern Ocean ...
level ascents, salt water interruption, overwhelmed
landscape A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or human-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal.''New Oxford American Dictionary''. A landscape includes th ...
coming about unfortunate water quality in surface and the subsurface (Akujieze et al., 2003, Bello, 1998, Danladi et al., 2017). Intensified climatic impacts have definitely impacted the environments and networks, going from social and financial effects on food weakness and wellbeing challenges, proof of which can be tracked down in North Nigeria (Urama and Ozor, 2010). The Sudano-
Sahelian The Sahel region (; ), or Sahelian acacia savanna, is a Biogeography, biogeographical region in Africa. It is the Ecotone, transition zone between the more humid Sudanian savannas to its south and the drier Sahara to the north. The Sahel has a ...
district of Nigeria have a persistent history of expanding dryness and have encountered expanded frequency of dry season complemented by environmental change (James, 1973, Mortimore, 1973, Ola-Adams and Okali, 2006, Olofin, 1985). The circumstance in the Sudano-Sahelian locale of Nigeria is that of a consistent progression of the Sahara desert and expanding desertification making huge breadth of beforehand suitable brushing and arable land become inaccessible and useless (Ajaero et al., 2015). Events of dry spell in northern Nigeria has been credited basically to the disappointment of the downpour bearing rainstorm twists from the
Atlantic The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, with an area of about . It covers approximately 17% of Earth's surface and about 24% of its water surface area. During the Age of Discovery, it was known for se ...
Sea to enter adequately enough into the area. Desertification on the other, have been connected to various variables which incorporate state of being of soils, disturbance of biological framework brought about by unfortunate land use, vegetation, geography, natural climatic impulses, and ceaseless expansion sought after being made upon the accessible land assets for farming necessities to satisfy the developing need for food (Oladipo, 1993). Northwestern piece of Nigeria has seen wonderful extension, development and formative exercises like structures, street developments, cultivating, and
deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. Ab ...
alongside other
anthropogenic Anthropogenic ("human" + "generating") is an adjective that may refer to: * Anthropogeny, the study of the origins of humanity Anthropogenic may also refer to things that have been generated by humans, as follows: * Human impact on the enviro ...
exercises related with enormous expansion in populace. This has brought about expanded interest for water for rural, modern and metropolitan necessities. Deficiency of adequate water to provide food for these necessities generally makes the test water shortage especially during the dry season. Inaccessibility of water for utilization and rural reason typically lead to episode and spread of sicknesses and food lack, for example, loose bowels and cholera prompting the degeneration personal satisfaction in the area. Admittance to safe water supply inside Sokoto-Rima bowl has incredible impact on the wellbeing, monetary efficiency and personal satisfaction of individuals. Addressing this need is the serious issue confronting the local area. More than 70% of families locally don't approach further developed water supply (Salih and Al-Tarif, 2012). They exclusively depend on free source, for example, downpour, enduring streams, lakes and unprotected wells, which makes them defenseless against water borne sicknesses like
typhoid Typhoid fever, also known simply as typhoid, is a disease caused by ''Salmonella enterica'' serotype Typhi bacteria, also called ''Salmonella'' Typhi. Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often ther ...
fever,
cholera Cholera () is an infection of the small intestine by some Strain (biology), strains of the Bacteria, bacterium ''Vibrio cholerae''. Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea last ...
and loose bowels. With the bigger extent of the populaces participated in cultivating, settlement are general little and are dissipated over huge region, making pipe borne water supply troublesome (Ishaku et al., 2011). Intercessions by the public authority to mitigate the test of water shortage include the arrangement of wells and
borehole A borehole is a narrow shaft bored in the ground, either vertically or horizontally. A borehole may be constructed for many different purposes, including the extraction of water ( drilled water well and tube well), other liquids (such as petr ...
s. Tragically, investigation for groundwater is very difficult around here. The rough geography and high help comprise a significant
hydrogeological Hydrogeology (''hydro-'' meaning water, and ''-geology'' meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aqui ...
challenge bringing about high pace of well disappointment, while some of useful wells yield no or little water during the dry season which wouldn't uphold the populace, prompting water emergency and deficiencies (Akujieze et al., 2003). This present circumstance adjusts cultivating and powers families particularly the ladies and kids to invest more energy strolling longer distances during the dry season to jog water for homegrown purposes. The powerlessness of momentum water supply plot satisfy the rising need requires the thought of creative choices with short and long haul benefits. It is central to investigate possibilities of adjusting current and expanding impulses in. Water reaping utilizing capacity structures addresses one of the promptly versatile arrangements, as limited scale repositories have been found to assume critical parts in adaption to environment changeability, while expanding family pay in sub-Saharan Africa precipitation (Cofie and Amede, 2015). The review region for this study is the Sokoto-Rima Stream bowl (Fig. 1) with an all out area of 126,174 km2. It covers four states in the northwestern Nigeria and subsequently exists in the semi-parched area or Sudano-Sahelian locale which as per IPCC (2007) is profoundly helpless against environmental change. The region is basically covered with light timberland,
meadow A meadow ( ) is an open habitat or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non- woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as they maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable con ...
, and hindered
tree In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, e.g., including only woody plants with secondary growth, only ...
s. The environment is predominantly constrained by two
air An atmosphere () is a layer of gases that envelop an astronomical object, held in place by the gravity of the object. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A stellar atmosph ...
masses which decide the two prevailing seasons, which are the dry and wet season. The air masses are
Tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the equator, where the sun may shine directly overhead. This contrasts with the temperate or polar regions of Earth, where the Sun can never be directly overhead. This is because of Earth's ax ...
Oceanic and
Tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the equator, where the sun may shine directly overhead. This contrasts with the temperate or polar regions of Earth, where the Sun can never be directly overhead. This is because of Earth's ax ...
Mainland, blowing from the Atlantic and the Sahara Desert separately. The region encounters a delayed dry season frequently overwhelmed by dusty
harmattan The Harmattan is a season in West Africa that occurs between the end of November and the middle of March. It is characterized by the dry and dusty northeasterly trade wind, of the same name, which blows from the Sahara over West Africa into th ...
twists from October to April. The best food uncertainty concerns exist in outrageous northern Nigeria which incorporate the Sokoto-Rima Stream bowl. As per US Office for Worldwide Turn of events (USIAD) (2012), the locale is among the areas named "pushed" under the 2012 assessed food security conditions in Nigeria and will have serious ramifications sooner rather than later. Relative dampness is generally low (40%) for the significant piece of the year except for the wet season when it ascends to a normal of 80%. This fundamental justification behind the blistering and dry weather conditions experienced in the northern locale, which is in sharp difference to a sweltering and damp weather conditions experienced in the southern pieces of Nigeria (Kowal and Knabe, 1972). The review region reaches out between scopes 10°N and 14° N and longitudes 3°E and 9°E. The waste framework is overwhelmed by Waterway Rima framework with significant feeders like Gawon, Zamfara and Gubinka. These feeders ascend in the Storm cellar Complex area of Sokoto State and stream toward the west to join the Waterway Rima. Nonetheless, in the southern piece of the bowl, there are other less significant streams, for example, Danzaki, Pop and Kasanu, all of which stream to join the Waterway Rima (Ojo, 2014). Sokoto Rima bowl can be sorted into three morphological units, viz. the uplands overwhelmed by took apart translucent rocks with
slope In mathematics, the slope or gradient of a Line (mathematics), line is a number that describes the direction (geometry), direction of the line on a plane (geometry), plane. Often denoted by the letter ''m'', slope is calculated as the ratio of t ...
ranges and domical rises (inselbergs) happening in the south and southeast, the fields happening in the north and focus, and the riverine marsh of the Niger and lower Rima valleys happening in the west (Swindell, 1986). Horticulture through water system is broadly polished and crops developed incorporate grains, cotton, groundnuts, tuber harvests and sugar stick. Water is vital to headway of maintainable horticultural in this sort of district, as it straightforwardly influences a few parts of supportability, for example, monetary, wellbeing, ecological and social perspectives (WWAP, 2015). The rising interest in food requires execution and strengthening of practical of
agribusiness Agribusiness is the industry, enterprises, and the field of study of value chains in agriculture and in the bio-economy, in which case it is also called bio-business or bio-enterprise. The primary goal of agribusiness is to maximize profit ...
programs, which pivots extraordinarily on the accessibility of water. Water gathering and stockpiling designs, for example, lakes, dams and little supplies could subsequently offer a portion of the water expected to drive manageable horticulture in the Sokoto-Rima bowl. Furthermore, these designs can be utilized to relieve the event of glimmer floods (Saher et al., 2013) related with short yet extreme focus precipitation which trademark in the Sokoto-Rima bowl by controlling how much water streaming downstream after weighty downpour (Ola-Adams and Okali, 2006), and at a similar increment groundwater re-energize because of maintenance of water for longer periods.


General hydrology of Sokoto Basin

The
Sokoto Sokoto (Hausa language, Hausa: ; Fulfulde, Fula: , ''Leydi Sokoto'') is one of the 36 states of Nigeria, located in the extreme northwest of the country. It is bounded by Niger, Republic of the Niger to the north and west for 363 km (226 m ...
Bowl of northwestern Nigeria lies in the sub-Saharan Sudan belt of west Africa in a zone of savannah-type vegetation. Precipitation, averaging around yearly in a significant part of the bowl, happens essentially in a wet season which endures from May to October. A delayed dry season reaching out from October to April is overwhelmed by dusty harmattan twists from the upper east. April and May are the most sizzling months, when temperatures every so often reach . Stream in surges of the Sokoto Bowl is for the most part overland spillover. Just in a couple of compasses, took care of by ground-water release from the sedimentary rocks, are streams enduring. In the Stream Zamfara bowl, ground-water release contributes just about of the normal crawls of complete yearly overflow. Nearby Sokoto, the Stream Rima streams all through the year supported by spring release from roosted ground water in limestone of the Kalambaina Arrangement. On the translucent rock formation where the vast majority of the streams rise, all out yearly spillover might surpass , very little of which is ground-water release. The sedimentary rocks of the bowl range in age from Cretaceous to Tertiary and are made for the most part out of interbedded sand, mud, and some limestone; the beds plunge tenderly toward the northwest. Alluvium of Quaternary age underlies the swamps of the Stream Sokoto (presently Sokoto) and its primary feeders. These stones contain three significant artesian springs, notwithstanding provincial unconfined ground-water bodies in all the head outcron regions, and a roosted water body in the outcrop of the Kalambaina Development. Artesian springs happen at profundity in the Gundumi Arrangement, the Rima Gathering, and the Gwandu Development and are isolated from each other by
mud Mud (, or Middle Dutch) is loam, silt or clay mixed with water. Mud is usually formed after rainfall or near water sources. Ancient mud deposits hardened over geological time to form sedimentary rock such as shale or mudstone (generally cal ...
beds in the lower some portion of the Rima Gathering and the Dange Arrangement. In outcrop, earth in the Dange Arrangement additionally upholds the roosted water of the Kalambaina Development. The Gundumi Development, laying on the storm cellar complex, is made out of varicolored earth,
sand Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles. Sand has various compositions but is usually defined by its grain size. Sand grains are smaller than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural ...
, and
rock Rock most often refers to: * Rock (geology), a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals or mineraloids * Rock music, a genre of popular music Rock or Rocks may also refer to: Places United Kingdom * Rock, Caerphilly, a location in Wale ...
.


References

* ''The Hydrology and Plankton of the River Sokoto'' . J. Holden, J. Green. Journal of Animal Ecology, Vol. 29, No. 1 (May, 1960), pp. 65–84

* ''Isotope And Geochemical Characterization Of Surface And Subsurface Waters In The Semi-Arid Sokoto Basin, Nigeria'', Adelana et al., African Journal of Science and Technology (AJST), Science and Engineering Series Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 80–89, December 200

{{Authority control Sokoto River, Rivers of Nigeria Tributaries of the Niger River