Shinto , also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...

is a religion native to Japan with a centuries'-long history tied to various influences in origin. Although historians debate the point at which it is suitable to begin referring to Shinto as a distinct religion, veneration has been traced back to Japan's

Yayoi period The Yayoi period (弥生時代, ''Yayoi jidai'') (c. 300 BC – 300 AD) is one of the major historical periods of the Japanese archipelago. It is generally defined as the era between the beginning of food production in Japan and the emergence o ...

(300 BCE to CE 300).

Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

entered Japan at the end of the

Kofun period The is an era in the history of Japan from about 300 to 538 AD (the date of the introduction of Buddhism), following the Yayoi period. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes collectively called the Yamato period. This period is ...

(CE 300 to 538) and spread rapidly. Religious syncretization made worship and Buddhism functionally inseparable, a process called ''

shinbutsu-shūgō ''Shinbutsu-shūgō'' (, "syncretism of kami and buddhas"), also called ''Shinbutsu-konkō'' (, "jumbling up" or "contamination of kami and buddhas"), is the syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism in Japan, Buddhism that was Japan's main organized rel ...

''. The came to be viewed as part of

Buddhist cosmology Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the Universe according to Buddhist Tripitaka, scriptures and Atthakatha, commentaries. It consists of a temporal and a spatial cosmology. The temporal cosmology describes the ...

and were increasingly depicted anthropomorphically. The earliest written tradition regarding worship was recorded in the 8th-century ''

Kojiki The , also sometimes read as or , is an early Japanese chronicle of myths, legends, hymns, genealogies, oral traditions, and semi-historical accounts down to 641 concerning the origin of the Japanese archipelago, the , and the Japanese imperia ...

'' and ''

Nihon Shoki The or , sometimes translated as ''The Chronicles of Japan'', is the second-oldest book of classical Japanese history. It is more elaborate and detailed than the , the oldest, and has proven to be an important tool for historians and archaeol ...

''. In ensuing centuries, was adopted by Japan's Imperial household. During the

Meiji era The was an Japanese era name, era of History of Japan, Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feu ...

(1868 to 1912), Japan's

nationalist Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation,Anthony D. Smith, Smith, A ...

leadership expelled Buddhist influence from worship and formed

State Shinto was Empire of Japan, Imperial Japan's ideological use of the Japanese folk religion and traditions of Shinto. The state exercised control of shrine finances and training regimes for Kannushi, priests to strongly encourage Shinto practices that ...

, which some historians regard as the origin of Shinto as a distinct religion. Shrines came under growing government influence and citizens were encouraged to worship the

emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...

as a . With the formation of the

Japanese Empire The Empire of Japan, also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was the Japanese nation state that existed from the Meiji Restoration on January 3, 1868, until the Constitution of Japan took effect on May 3, 1947. From 1910 to ...

in the early 20th century, Shinto was exported to other areas of East Asia. Following Japan's defeat in

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

, Shinto was formally separated from the state. Even among experts, there are no settled theories on what Shinto is or how far it should be included, and there are no settled theories on where the history of Shinto begins. The Shinto scholar says that the "origin" of Shinto was completed from the

to the

, but as for the timing of the establishment of a systematic Shinto, he says that it is not clear. There are four main theories. # The theory that it was established in the 7th century with the Ritsuryo system (Okada Souji et al.) # The theory that the awareness of "Shinto" was born and established at the Imperial Court in the 8th–9th century (Masao Takatori et al.) # The theory that Shinto permeated the provinces during the 11th and 12th centuries (Inoue Kanji et al.) # The theory that

Yoshida Shinto Yoshida (written: 吉田 lit. "lucky ricefield") is the 11th most common Japanese surname. A less common variant is 芳田 (lit. "fragrant ricefield"). Notable people with the surname *Ai Yoshida, Japanese sailor *, Japanese idol, singer and mo ...

was founded in the 15th century (

Toshio Kuroda Toshio Kuroda may refer to: * Toshio Kuroda (Islamic professor) * Toshio Kuroda (Shinto professor) was a Japanese academic, historian and university professor. A specialist in medieval Japanese history and in the history of Japanese thought, he ...

et al.)

Overview

Although there is no definitive theory on the origin of

as a religion; its origins date back to the

ancient history Ancient history is a time period from the History of writing, beginning of writing and recorded human history through late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the development of Sumerian language, ...

of Japan. Based on rice cultivation introduced at the end of the

Jōmon period In Japanese history, the is the time between , during which Japan was inhabited by the Jōmon people, a diverse hunter-gatherer and early agriculturalist population united by a common culture, which reached a considerable degree of sedentism an ...

and at the start of the

nature worship Nature worship, also called naturism or physiolatry, is any of a variety of religious, spiritual and devotional practices that focus on the worship of a nature deity, considered to be behind the natural phenomena visible throughout nature. A n ...

, which views nature as one with some god, arose in the

Japanese archipelago The is an archipelago of list of islands of Japan, 14,125 islands that form the country of Japan. It extends over from the Sea of Okhotsk in the northeast to the East China Sea, East China and Philippine Sea, Philippine seas in the southwest al ...

. These beliefs were spread throughout the archipelago as a national festival by the

Yamato Kingship The was a tribal alliance centered on the Yamato Province, Yamato region (Nara Prefecture) from the 4th century to the 7th century, and ruled over the alliance of Nobility, noble families in the central and western parts of the Japanese archipe ...

in the Kofun era. Rituals were held at the first

Shinto shrine A Stuart D. B. Picken, 1994. p. xxiii is a structure whose main purpose is to house ("enshrine") one or more kami, , the deities of the Shinto religion. The Also called the . is where a shrine's patron is or are enshrined.Iwanami Japanese dic ...

s such as

Munakata Taisha is a collection of three Shinto Shinto shrine, shrines located in Munakata, Fukuoka, Munakata, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. It is the head of the approximately 6,000 Munakata shrines all over the country. Although the name Munakata Taisha refers to ...

and

Ōmiwa Shrine , also known as , is a Shinto shrine located in Sakurai, Nara Prefecture, Japan. The shrine is notable because it contains no sacred images or objects, since it is believed to serve Mount Miwa, the mountain on which it stands. For the same ...

, and the prototype of Shinto was formed. In the

Asuka period The was a period in the history of Japan lasting from 538 to 710, although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding Kofun period. The Yamato period, Yamato polity evolved greatly during the Asuka period, which is named after the ...

, the ritual system, shrines, and ceremonies were developed along with the establishment of the Ritsuryo, and the Ritsuryo rituals were formed with the involvement of the

Diviners Divination () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice. Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, ...

as the

administrative body Business administration is the administration of a commercial enterprise. It includes all aspects of overseeing and supervising the business operations of an organization. Overview The administration of a business includes the performance or m ...

. Ritsuryo rituals were formed in which the

Department of Divinities The , also known as the Department of Shinto Affairs, Department of Rites, Department of Worship, as well as Council of Divinities, was a Japanese Imperial bureaucracy established in the 8th century, as part of the reforms. It was first establish ...

The

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

rituals were used as a reference for the regulations of the management and operation of rituals in the ritual system. In the following

Nara period The of the history of Japan covers the years from 710 to 794. Empress Genmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara). Except for a five-year period (740–745), when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the capita ...

, the ''

'' and the ''

'' were compiled as

Japanese mythology Japanese mythology is a collection of traditional stories, folktales, and beliefs that emerged in the islands of the Japanese archipelago. Shinto traditions are the cornerstones of Japanese mythology. The history of thousands of years of contac ...

along with the national history, and the rituals and the Emperor's family were connected. In the

Heian period The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means in Japanese. It is a ...

, the Ritsuryo system was relaxed and the emperor and his vassals became directly involved in the rituals of local shrines without going through the Shinto priests. In addition to this,

Shinbutsu-shūgō ''Shinbutsu-shūgō'' (, "syncretism of kami and buddhas"), also called ''Shinbutsu-konkō'' (, "jumbling up" or "contamination of kami and buddhas"), is the syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism in Japan, Buddhism that was Japan's main organized rel ...

, a phenomenon of

, in which

was fused with this belief in gods, also occurred in ancient Japan, while the idea of Shinbutsu segregation, in which rituals were distinct from Buddhism, was also seen. In addition, beliefs such as Shugendo and

Onmyōdō is a technique that uses knowledge of astronomy and calendars to divine good fortune in terms of date, time, direction and general personal affairs, originating from the philosophy of the yin-yang and the five elements. The philosophy of yin an ...

were established in Japan, and these also influenced Shinto. In the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...

, there was a widespread movement to doctrinize and internalize Shinto. In the

Kamakura period The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...

, the

Kamakura shogunate The was the feudal military government of Japan during the Kamakura period from 1185 to 1333. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)"''Kamakura-jidai''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia'', p. 459. The Kamakura shogunate was established by Minamoto no Yori ...

veneration Veneration (; ), or veneration of saints, is the act of honoring a saint, a person who has been identified as having a high degree of sanctity or holiness. Angels are shown similar veneration in many religions. Veneration of saints is practiced, ...

protected shrines in various regions, and among the common people, Kumano,

Hachiman In Japanese religion, ''Yahata'' (八幡神, ancient Shinto pronunciation) formerly in Shinto and later commonly known as Hachiman (八幡神, Japanese Buddhist pronunciation) is the syncretic divinity of archery and war, incorporating elements f ...

Inari Inari may refer to: Shinto * Inari Ōkami, a Shinto spirit ** Mount Inari in Japan, site of Fushimi Inari-taisha, the main Shinto shrine to Inari ** Inari shrine, dedicated to the Shinto god Inari * Inari-zushi, a type of sushi Places * Inari, ...

Ise Ise may refer to: Places *Ise, Mie, a city in Japan **Ise Grand Shrine, a Shinto shrine located in Ise, Mie * Ise Ekiti, a city in Nigeria * Ise, Norway, a village in Norway *Ise Province, an ancient province of Japan *River Ise, a tributary of the ...

, and Tenjin came to be widely worshipped across regions. In the midst of this spread of Shinto, the intellectual class began to use Buddhist theories to interpret Shinto, starting with the Esoteric Buddhist monk's dualistic Shinto, and advocated such theories as Honji Suijaku theory, which held that the Shinto gods were incarnations of Buddha. In response to this, the Shinto shrines, feeling threatened, systematized the inverted Honji Suijaku theory, which placed their gods above Buddha, against the backdrop of the rise of Shinto after the victory over the Mongol invaders, and established Ise Shinto, which uses the Five Books of Shinto as its basic scripture. In addition,

Yoshida Kanetomo was a Japanese Shinto priest of the Sengoku period. He was a seminal figure in the evolution of a coherent descriptive and interpretive schema of Shinto ritual and mythology.Itō Satoshi "Yoshida Kanetomo,"''Encyclopedia of Shinto.'' April 15, 20 ...

, who lost many ancient books in the

Ōnin War The , also known as the Upheaval of Ōnin and Ōnin-Bunmei war, was a civil war that lasted from 1467 to 1477, during the Muromachi period in Japan. ''Ōnin'' refers to the Japanese era name, Japanese era during which the war started; the war ende ...

of the

Muromachi period The , also known as the , is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate ( or ), which was officially established in 1338 by the first Muromachi ...

, took the opportunity to forge sutras to create the first Shinto theory that had its own doctrine, sutras, and rituals independent of Buddhism.

took this opportunity to create the first Shinto theory,

Yoshida Shintō (), also frequently referred to as (, "One-and-only Shintō"), was a prominent sect of Shintō that arose during the Sengoku period through the teachings and work of Yoshida Kanetomo. The sect was originally an effort to organize Shintō teachi ...

, which was the first Shinto theory to have a doctrine, scripture, and rituals. From the

Sengoku era The was the period in Japanese history in which civil wars and social upheavals took place almost continuously in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Kyōtoku incident (1454), Ōnin War (1467), or (1493) are generally chosen as the period's start ...

to the Azuchi-Momoyama period, Yoshida Shinto was involved in the construction of shrines that enshrined warring feudal lords as gods. In the

Edo period The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...

, which constitutes a large part of the

Early modern period The early modern period is a Periodization, historical period that is defined either as part of or as immediately preceding the modern period, with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity. There i ...

in Japan, the

Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868. The Tokugawa shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, ending the civil wars ...

reorganized the administration of shrines. On the other hand, Buddhism, which had attained the status of a state religion, was in a period of stagnation as an ideology. In this context, in the early Edo period, mainstream Shinto, from the standpoint of criticism of Buddhism, became increasingly associated with the

Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...

of the Cheng-Zhu school, and shifted to

Confucian Shinto Confucian Shinto, also known as in Japanese, is a syncretic religious tradition that combines elements of Confucianism and Shinto. It originated in Japan during the Edo period (1603–1868), and is sometimes referred to as "Neo-Confucian Shinto. ...

such as Taruka Shinto. In the mid-Edo period,

Kokugaku was an academic movement, a school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Edo period. scholars worked to refocus Japanese scholarship away from the then-dominant study of Chinese, Confucian, and Buddhist texts in favor of ...

, which integrated Shinto with the empirical study of Japanese classics such as poetry and languages, developed and flourished, replacing

. The Kokugaku scholar

Motoori Norinaga was a Japanese people, Japanese scholar of active during the Edo period. He is conventionally ranked as one of the Four Great Men of Kokugaku (nativist) studies. Life Norinaga was born in what is now Matsusaka, Mie, Matsusaka in Ise Province ...

strongly criticized the interpretation of Shinto in terms of Chinese-derived Buddhist and Confucian doctrines, and insisted on conducting empirical studies of Shinto scriptures. In the late Edo period, Norinaga's theology was critically inherited by

Fukko Shinto Fukko Shintō (復古神道, Restoration Shinto) is a movement within Shinto that was advocated by Japanese scholars during the Edo period. It attempted to reject Bukka Shinto, Buddhist and Confucian Shinto, Confucian influence on Shinto and retu ...

, influenced by Christianity, emphasized the afterlife, as well as

Chinese mythology Chinese mythology () is mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature throughout the area now known as Greater China. Chinese mythology encompasses a diverse array of myths derived from regional and cultural tradit ...

Hindu mythology Hindu mythology refers to the collection of myths associated with Hinduism, derived from various Hindu texts and traditions. These myths are found in sacred texts such as the Vedas, the Itihasas (the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Ramayan ...

Christian mythology Christian mythology is the body of myths associated with Christianity. The term encompasses a broad variety of legends and narratives, especially those considered sacred narratives. Mythological themes and elements occur throughout Christian l ...

, and other myths from around the world were claimed to be accents of Japanese mythology, and were involved in the subsequent restoration of the monarchy. On the other hand, in the

Mito Domain was a Japanese domain of the Edo period. It was associated with Hitachi Province in modern-day Ibaraki Prefecture.Late Mito Studies, which integrated Confucian ethics such as loyalty, filial piety, and humanity with national studies, was developed in response to the criticism of Norinaga, who rejected Confucianism. Late Mito studies, which advocated the rule of Japan by the emperor by combining Confucianism and Shinto, became the nursery ground for the ideas of the Shishi at the end of the Edo period. When the Shogunate was overthrown and Japan began to move toward the

Late modern period In many periodizations of human history, the late modern period followed the early modern period. It began around 1800 and, depending on the author, either ended with the beginning of contemporary history in 1945, or includes the contemporary h ...

, the new government set the goal of unity of Shinto and politics through the Great Decree of Restoration of the Monarchy. In addition to the propagation of Shinto based on the Daikyo Declaration, the

Shinbutsu bunri The Japanese term indicates the separation of Shinto from Buddhism, introduced after the Meiji Restoration which separated Shinto ''kami'' from buddhas, and also Buddhist temples from Shinto shrines, which were originally amalgamated. It is a ...

led to the separation of Shinto and Buddhism, and in some cases, the

Haibutsu kishaku (literally "abolish Buddhism and destroy Shākyamuni") is a term that indicates a current of thought continuous in Japan's history which advocates the expulsion of Buddhism from Japan.State Shinto was Empire of Japan, Imperial Japan's ideological use of the Japanese folk religion and traditions of Shinto. The state exercised control of shrine finances and training regimes for Kannushi, priests to strongly encourage Shinto practices that ...

system in which the state controlled shrines as state religious services. Later, when the

Separation of church and state The separation of church and state is a philosophical and Jurisprudence, jurisprudential concept for defining political distance in the relationship between religious organizations and the State (polity), state. Conceptually, the term refers to ...

led to the expulsion of the ritualists, the theory of non-religious shrines was adopted, which gave shrines a public character by defining them as not being religions, and local shrines were separated from public spending. In response to this,

Priests A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, ...

organized the National Association of Priests and launched a movement to restore the power of the Shinto priests, demanding that the government make public expenditures. The

Kannushi , also called , is the common term for a member of the clergy at a responsible for maintaining the shrine and leading worship of the there.* ''Kannushi'' (in Japanese), Iwanami Japanese dictionary, 6th Edition (2008), DVD version The chara ...

organized the National Association of Shinto Priests and launched a movement to restore the Shinto officialdom, demanding that the government make public expenditures. After the end of

, the

Shinto Directive The Shinto Directive was an order issued in 1945 to the Japanese government by Occupation authorities to abolish state support for the Shinto religion. This unofficial "State Shinto" was thought by Allies to have been a major contributor to ...

by the GHQ dismantled the state Shinto system, which was considered the root of

Nationalism Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Theory, I ...

ideology. The

by the

of the

dismantled the state Shinto system, and shrines were transformed into

religious corporation A religious corporation is a type of religious non-profit organization, which has been incorporated under the law. Often these types of corporations are recognized under the law on a subnational level, for instance by a state or province governm ...

s with the

Association of Shinto Shrines The is a religious administrative organisation that oversees about 80,000 Shinto shrines in Japan. These shrines take the Ise Grand Shrine as the foundation of their belief. It is the largest Shrine Shinto organization in existence. Description ...

as the umbrella organization. Although shrines thus lost their official position in modern times, some shrines have since achieved economic prosperity through free religious activities, and Shinto plays a certain role in Japan's annual events and life rituals.

Ancient times

Pre-Ritsuryō Rituals

As rice cultivation spread through the

from the late Jomon into the Yayoi period, a type of nature worship based on the cultivation of rice also arose. This belief was based on the idea that nature and the ''kami'' were one, and that sacrifices and rituals prevented the ''kami'' from ravishing the land in the form of natural disasters. Ikegami-sone_ruins01s3200

In the Yayoi period, several Shinto practices appeared that had clear similarities to those seen in the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki''. Archeological finds supporting this include finds believed to be in a similar vein as shrines, such as a new style of , bronze ritualistic items from archeological sites including the

Kōjindani Site The is an archaeological site consisting of the remains of a Yayoi period ritual site located in the Hikawa-cho neighborhood of the city of Izumo, Shimane Prefecture in the San'in region of Japan. The site was designated a National Historic Sit ...

, and large buildings with , an architectural feature in common with later shrines, an example of which is seen at the

Ikegami-Sone Site The is an archaeological site containing the ruins of a large-scale Yayoi period settlement straddling the Ikegami neighborhood in the city of Izumi, Osaka, Izumi and the Sone neighborhood in the city of Izumiōtsu, Osaka, Izumiōtsu in the Kans ...

. Charred bones of deer and other animals used for divination have also been found in the vicinity of such sites, as well as

grave goods Grave goods, in archaeology and anthropology, are items buried along with a body. They are usually personal possessions, supplies to smooth the deceased's journey into an afterlife, or offerings to gods. Grave goods may be classed by researche ...

such as mirrors, swords, and beads. Around the

3rd century The 3rd century was the period from AD 201 (represented by the Roman numerals CCI) to AD 300 (CCC) in accordance with the Julian calendar. In this century, the Roman Empire saw a crisis, starting with the assassination of the Roman Emperor ...

, what would become the

Makimuku ruins The Makimuku ruins are ruins in Nara Prefecture Sakurai, Nara, Sakurai near Mount Miwa. Recovered artifacts are of the Yayoi Period and Kofun Period. It is designated as a national historic site, and an archaeological site that began in the ...

began to develop in the

Yamato Province was a province of Japan, located in Kinai, corresponding to present-day Nara Prefecture in Honshū. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric (2005). "Yamato" in . It was also called . Yamato consists of two characters, 大 "great", and 和 " Wa". At first, th ...

near

Mount Miwa or is a mountain located in the city of Sakurai, Nara Prefecture, Japan. It has been an important religious and historical mountain in Japan, especially during its early history, and serves as a holy site in Shinto. The entire mountain is co ...

, and early, large-scale ''

zenpokoenfun Zenpokoenfun is an architectural model of Japanese ancient tombs (Kofun), which consists of a square front part (, Zenpō-bu) and a circular back part (, Kōen-bu). The part connecting the two is called the middle part (, Kubire-bu), which looks ...

'' began to emerge as well, such as the Hashihaka ''kofun''. It is believed the

was established in this period. The 3rd century is also the estimated time of creation of the triangular-rimmed '' shinjūkyō'' passed down by the shrine as well as the iron sword excavated at

Isonokami Shrine is a Shinto shrine located in the hills of Furu in Tenri, Nara Prefecture, Japan. It is one of the oldest extant Shinto shrines in Japan and has housed several significant artifacts. Isonokami shrine was highly regarded in the ancient era, an ...

. These objects resemble the holy sword and mirror described in the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shiki'', and allowed for a clearer understanding of elements that would lead to the Shinto faith later. The first state Shinto rituals occurred in the 4th century. Large numbers of religious artifacts such as bronze mirrors and iron weapons with similarities to the ''kofun'' grave goods of the late 4th century in the Yamato region have been excavated from

Okinoshima Okinoshima may refer to: *Oki Islands, a group of Japanese islands historically called Okinoshima * Okinoshima, Shimane is a List of towns in Japan, town located on Dōgojima, Dōgo, in Oki District, Shimane, Oki District, Shimane Prefecture, J ...

Munakata, Fukuoka is a city in Japan, located in Fukuoka Prefecture. , the city had an estimated population of 96,786 in 44884 households, and a population density of 810 persons per km². The total area of the city is . History The origin of the name Munakata i ...

. This indicates that Yamato Kingship rituals began on Okinoshima prior to this. Ritual objects such as small bronze mirrors have also been excavated at Mount Miwa which match those at Munakata Taisha, which lends credibility to the theory that rituals at Mount Miwa (home later to the

) began at approximately the same time as those on Okinoshima. It is believed that the 4th century, with the rituals held at the early shrines of Munaka Taisha and Ōmiwa Shrine, was when the base of the following Shinto faith developed. The 5th century sees the spread across Japan. These were originally used in rituals in the Yamato region, and their spread suggests the Yamato Kingship expanded across the Japanese archipelago. Of particular note are the many ''sekisei mozōhin'' of ''haji'' pottery, ''takatsuki'' tables, and ''

magatama are curved, comma-shaped beads that appeared in prehistoric Japan from the Jōmon period, Final Jōmon period through the Kofun period, approximately 1000 BCE to the 6th century CE. The beads, also described as jewels, were made of stone and e ...

'' beads discovered on the eastern side of the country at the Miyanaka Jōri Site Ōfunatsu of

Kashima, Ibaraki is a city located in Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 67,197 in 28,873 households and a population density of 634 persons per km2. The percentage of the population aged over 65 was 31.5%. The total area of t ...

or the Odaki Ryōgenji Site in

Minamibōsō is a Cities of Japan, city located in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 37,143 in 17,175 households and a population density of 160 persons per km2. The total area of the city is , making it the fifth largest c ...

, Chiba, which indicates Yamato Kingship rituals were taking place in these locations. It is believed the Imperial Court later valued the rituals in these regions which led to the establishment of the Kashima Shrine and Awa Shrine with defined . Other religious objects of the 5th century include iron grave goods in ''kofun'', as well as

sue pottery was a blue-gray form of stoneware pottery fired at high temperature, which was produced in Japan and southern Korea during the Kofun, Nara, and Heian periods of Japanese history. It was initially used for funerary and ritual objects, and origi ...

and cloth excavated from various sites including the Senzokudai Site in Chiba Prefecture and Shussaku Site in Ehime Prefecture, and, therefore, this era is believed to be when the precursors of modern Shinto developed. The 6th century brings changes in ''kofun'' funerary rituals and a shift from vertical stone burial chambers to horizontal. The exact nature of these ''kofun'' funerary rituals was determined by researching ''

haniwa The are terracotta clay figures that were made for ritual use and buried with the dead as funerary objects during the Kofun period (3rd to 6th centuries AD) of the history of Japan. ''Haniwa'' were created according to the ''wazumi'' technique ...

'' clay figures depicting people using weapons or tools, gifted animals, and nobles riding horses. These figures give a concrete view at these rituals. The shift from vertical to horizontal stone burial chambers suggests the development of beliefs about the nature of the soul in which the soul leaves the body after death. This can be seen in myths in the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shiki'' and is believed to have had an impact on the formation of belief in ''kami'' with humanlike aspects.

Formation of Ritsuryō Rituals

In the 7th century, the establishment of the

Ritsuryō is the historical Japanese legal system, legal system based on the philosophies of Confucianism and Legalism (Chinese philosophy), Chinese Legalism in Feudal Japan. The political system in accord to Ritsuryō is called "Ritsuryō-sei" (). ''Kya ...

system began primarily during the

Tenmu period The Temmu period is a chronological timeframe during the Asuka period of Japanese history. The Temmu period describes a span of years which were considered to have begun in the 1333rd year of the imperial dynasty.Murray, David. (1894). , citing ...

and

Jitō period The Jitō period is a chronological timeframe during the Asuka period of Japanese history. The Jitō period describes a span of years which were considered to have begun in the 1347th year of the imperial dynasty.Murray, David. (1894). , citing ...

, during which Shinto underwent a major transformation. The systemization of Shinto and the development of an institutional framework of its rituals progressed based on the faiths formed from the Kofun period onward while incorporating aspects from external beliefs, as ritual systems, shrines, and ceremonies developed. The public ritual system of the ''ritsuryō'' state was developed in accordance with the . It is believed the ''Jingo Ryō'' was established at the same stage as the

Asuka Kiyomihara Code The refers to a collection of governing rules compiled and promulgated in 689, one of the first, if not the first collection of Ritsuryō laws in classical Japan. This also marks the initial appearance of the central administrative body called ...

and that codes from the

were used as reference. While the regulations for the management and administration of the rituals did follow in accordance with this code, the nature of the rituals was almost entirely unique to Japan, meaning the ''Jingi'' ''Ryō'' can be thought of as a reformation of Japan-specific religious beliefs based on the Tang code. The ''Jingi Ryō'' established the

, the administrative department for overseeing rituals, as well as the director position the . It was under this ''jingi-haku'' that 13 types of rituals were established as state rituals and regulated to occur in accordance with the seasons. These were the

Kinen-sai is a harvest festival that was celebrated every year in ancient Japan on February 4. It was held to pray for a good harvest, as reflected in its name. It is sometimes contrasted with Niiname-no-Matsuri or the fall festival. It is now celebrated ...

, , , , , , , , , Kannamesai Festival, , , and Daijō-sai (''

Niiname-no-Matsuri The ''Niiname-sai'' (新嘗祭, also read Shinjō-sai and Niiname-no-Matsuri) is a Japanese harvest ritual. The ritual is celebrated by the Emperor of Japan, who thanks the Shinto deities for a prosperous year and prays for a fruitful new year. ...

)''. The Kinen-sai held in the second month of the lunar calendar as an advance celebration of good harvest. The ''Chinka-Sai'' held in the third month of the lunar calendar as flowers petals scatter is held to send off evil spirits. The ''Tatsuta Matsuri'', a prayer to prevent wind damage from typhoons, and the ''Oimi-no-Matsuri,'' a prayer to prevent water disasters, are both held in the fourth and eleventh months of the lunar calendar. And just as the ''Niiname-no-Matsuri'' held in the eleventh month of the lunar calendar was to show gratitude for freshly harvested grain, the Ritsuryō rituals were characterized by a strong link with the harvest, aligning with the change of the seasons to show gratitude for the blessings of nature which were needed for agriculture. Regulations required the purification of a government official, and there are two types of purifications within the Ritsuryō rituals: the , and the . The ''maimi'' consists of the official abstaining entirely from their duties to undergo purification as they dedicate themselves to preparing for the ritual. The ''araimi'' only requires abstaining from the while continuing their duties. The six taboos are mourning, visiting the ill, consuming the meat of four-legged mammals, carrying out executions or sentencing criminals, playing music, and coming in contact with impurities. The government officials could be punished if they failed to conform to this requirement. The festivals were divided into major, medium, and minor rituals depending on the length of the time required for the purifications. For example, a major ritual (of which there is only the '' Daijō-sai'') requires an ''araimi'' of one month and a ''maimi'' of three days. Out of the several Ritsuryō state rituals, the Kinen-sai, ''Tsukinami-no-Matsuri,'' and ''Onie-matsuri'' included a ritual format unique to Japan called . This involved the Department of Divinities calling an assembly of priests from every formally recognized shrine in the country, where the

Nakatomi clan was a Japanese aristocratic kin group ('' uji''). Papinot, Jacques Edmond Joseph. (1906). ''Dictionnaire d’histoire et de géographie du Japon''; Papinot, (2003)"Nakatomi," ''Nobiliare du Japon'', p. 39 retrieved 2013-5-5. The clan claims desce ...

performed ritual prayers and the

Inbe clan Inbe clan (忌部氏; also spelled Imibe clan or Inbe clan) was a Japanese clan during the Yamato period. They claimed descent from Futodama. The Inbe clan originally had a religious function by preparing and taking care of offerings. According ...

distributed religious offerings called ''heihaku'' to the priests. The priests took the ''heihaku'' to offer to the ''kami'' of each of their shrines. There were also regulations for the ''

Ōharae-shiki The is one of the Shinto purification rituals known as ''harae'' and is sometimes translated as "Great Purification". It is also known as the . The ''Oharae no Kotoba, Ōharae no Kotoba'' prayer is recited during the ritual. The ritual is per ...

,'' in which the Nakatomi clan first offered an ''

ōnusa An or simply or is a wooden wand traditionally used in Shinto purification rituals. are decorated with a number of (paper streamers). When the are attached to a hexagonal or octagonal staff, the wand is also known as a . The word Tai ...

'' to the emperor, and the

Yamatonoaya clan Yamatonoaya clan (東漢氏) was an immigrant Japanese clans, clan active in Japan since the Kofun period according to the ''Nihon Shoki'' (720), ''Kojiki'' (711) and ''Shoku Nihongi'' (797). Origins According to ancient Japanese records, ''Nih ...

and Kawachinohumi clan offered a as well as performed the reading of ritual incantations. Then, a large group of male and female court officials gathered at the in the ''

suzakumon The was the main gate built in the center of the south end of the imperial palaces in the Japanese ancient capitals of Fujiwara-kyō (Kashihara), Heijō Kyō, Heijō-kyō (Nara, Nara, Nara), and later Kyoto, Heian-kyō (Kyoto). The placement foll ...

'' where the Nakatomi clan read purification incantations and divinators of the imperial court performed the purification. Up until this point, many shrines had no actual buildings, but these buildings started to become established in this period, particularly at officially recognized shrines. The '' shinkai'' ranking system was also established at this time, and shrines at which miracles occurred were assigned a (a shrine equivalent of a which established the shrine as a partial tax recipient) and a ''shinkai'' rank, and particularly venerated shrines were given a ''shingun'' holy precinct. Some shrines also received a type of citizen assigned to the shrine known as as well as shrine-owned farm fields called in which they worked to support the economic requirements of the shrine. Regions without officially-recognized shrines continued without physical shrine buildings. Someone was selected to act as the , a person in charge of rituals, and they conducted agriculture-related rituals in spring, when the rice was planted, and fall, at harvest, to thank the ''kami''. However, as time went on, government officials began visiting these places where the rituals were held where they informed the locals of the country's laws, adding an official aspect to these rituals, and the establishment of physical shrines spread across the country. The ritual system of the

Ise Grand Shrine The , located in Ise, Mie Prefecture of Japan, is a Shinto shrine dedicated to the solar goddess Amaterasu Ōmikami and the grain goddess Toyouke-hime (Toyouke Omikami). Also known simply as , Ise Shrine is a shrine complex composed of many Shi ...

was also developed during this period, and, during the reign of Emperor Temmu, the and (regions to provide rice for the emperor's ascension ceremony) were selected through divination, and the emperor would dine with

Amaterasu , often called Amaterasu () for short, also known as and , is the goddess of the sun in Japanese mythology. Often considered the chief deity (''kami'') of the Shinto pantheon, she is also portrayed in Japan's earliest literary texts, the () ...

while facing the direction of Ise, which formed the ''Daijō-sai'' as it is known in its modern form. The ''

saiō or was the title of the unmarried female members of the Imperial House of Japan, Japanese Imperial Family, sent to serve at Ise Grand Shrine from the late 7th century to the 14th century. The 's residence, , was about north-west of the shrine ...

'' system also came to be in which an unmarried female member of the imperial family was sent to serve at the Ise Grand Shrine, and the practice at the Ise Grand Shrine of began during the reign of

Empress Jitō was the 41st emperor of Japan, monarch of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 持統天皇 (41)/ref> according to the traditional List of Emperors of Japan, order of succession. Jitō's reign spanned the years from Jitō period, 68 ...

which is the practice of rebuilding all the shrines buildings at once every approximately 20 years. Shinto had an influence on the compilation of national history, a duty which was formed during the reign of Emperor Temmu and developed further during the reign of

Empress Genmei , also known as Empress Genmyō, was the 43rd monarch of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 元明天皇 (43) retrieved August 22, 2013. according to the traditional order of succession. Genmei's reign spanned the years 707 through ...

. The ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihonshiki'' were compiled during the 8th century and contain Japanese myths in the form of tales from the

Age of the Gods In Shinto chronology, the is the period preceding the accession of Jimmu, the first Emperor of Japan. The kamiyo myths are chronicled in the "upper roll" (''Kamitsumaki'') of the ''Kojiki'' and in the first and second chapters of the ''Nihon Sh ...

, as well as stories of Emperor Jimmu and how he established the country. The compilations were the basis of the imperial family's claim as the rightful rulers. Efforts were made to link ancient rituals to the ''kami'' believed to be the progenitor of the imperial family, such as by assuming the ''kami'' of

(the Three Female Deities of Munakata) are the three goddesses birthed by Amaterasu, while the origins of the court ritual clans such as the Nakatomi clan, Inbe clan, and Sarume-no-kimi people were sought after in the world of myth.

The Transformation of Ritsuryō and Heian Rituals

The Ritsuryō ritual system transformed during the Heian period (794–1185) as the Ritsuryō system was relaxed. In 798, it became impossible to maintain the ''heibu'' system of distributing religious offerings to all shrines in the country, resulting in the shrines being divided into two types: the which continued to receive their religious offerings from the Department of Divinities, and which received began to receive theirs from their provincial government. Shrines were further divided in greater and lesser shrines, as well as some shrines with particularly powerful miraculous powers classified as . These classifications were outlined in the '' Engishiki Jinmyōchō'' of 927. Saio_dai_Roto-nogi_20160515

As the imperial court expanded along with the relaxation of the Ritsuryō system, the emperor and their close advisors became directly involved in regular rituals of shrines that had particularly strong connections to the imperial court, rather than the Department of Divinities overseeing this duty, which led to the development of , officially recognized and officiated rituals, during the late Nara and early Heian periods. During the reign of

Empress Kōken Empress Kōken (born Abe, known as Empress Shōtoku during her second reign; 718–770) was the 46th and 48th monarch of Japan according to the traditional order of succession. She was born to Crown Prince Obito (the future Emperor Shōmu) and ...

Empress Kōmyō (701 – 23 July 760), born Fujiwara Asukabehime (藤原安宿媛), was the consort of Japanese Emperor Shōmu (701–756) during the Nara Period.Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). ''The Imperial House of Japan,'' pp. 57-58. Life A member of ...

and others began changing the regular rituals of the many , shrines housing the patron ''kami'' of the Fujiwara clan, into ''kōsai'' rituals''.'' Special rituals also became more common as the emperor's authority grew. These were rituals for specific ''kami,'' and in addition to the regular rituals, in which the emperor themself dispatched the imperial representative. The first example of this was the held by

Emperor Uda was the 59th emperor of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 宇多天皇 (59)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession. Uda's reign spanned the years from 887 through 897. Traditional narrative Name and legacy Befor ...

during his reign. The regular festival that developed after this retained the "special" name. The emperor and their close advisors became directly involved with even more rituals such as the emperor's , morning prayers sent to Ise Grand Shrine, conducted at a platform within the palace called the or the , a tradition which began in this period in which a court messenger takes sacred relics to specific shrines at an emperor's ascension. The practice of first occurred during

Emperor Suzaku was the 61st emperor of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 朱雀天皇 (61)/ref> according to the traditional List of emperors of Japan, order of succession. Suzaku's reign spanned the years from Heian period, 930 through 946. B ...

's reign. ''Gyōkō'' is the practice of the emperor themself going to a shrine and dispatching the ritual official from there, while up until that point, the emperor would have stayed in the imperial court and dispatched the officials from there. At this time, the nobles became more interested in ''

ujigami An is a guardian ''kami'' of a particular place in the Shinto religion of Japan. The ''ujigami'' was prayed to for a number of reasons, including protection from sickness, success in endeavors, and good harvests. History The ''ujigami'' is ...

'' rituals, and we see several collections of traditions written during this time. There is the ''

Kogo Shūi is a historical record of the Inbe clan of Japan written in the early Heian period (794–1185). It was composed by (斎部広成) in 807 using material transmitted orally over several generations of the Imbe clan, Inbe clan. Background Histor ...

'' written by Inbe no Hironari which consisted of an orally transmitted history of the Inbe clan and also acted as a counter to the Nakatomi clan. There is also the ''

Sendai Kuji Hongi , or , is a historical Japanese text. It was generally believed to have been one of the earliest Japanese histories until the middle of the Edo period, when scholars such as Tokugawa Mitsukuni and Tada Yoshitoshi successfully contended that it w ...

'' which contains a collection of histories about the different clans thought to have been compiled by the Mononobe clan, as well as the ''

Shinsen Shōjiroku is an imperially commissioned Japanese genealogical record. It was first conceived during Emperor Kanmu's reign in 799 to properly track the clans' then ambiguous lineages, but was not completed before his death in 806. The project was later car ...

'' containing the lineage and histories of the various clans which divided the clans into the branches of divine ancestry, imperial ancestry, foreign ancestry, and those of unknown ancestry. The ''

Engishiki The is a Japanese book of laws and customs. The major part of the writing was completed in 927. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)"''Engi-shiki''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia'', p. 178. History Emperor Daigo ordered the compilation of the ''Engishi ...

'', containing laws and customs, was completed in 927. Volumes one through ten contain laws regarding Shinto, and these ten volumes are collectively referred to as the . The contents of each volume are as follows: One and two, seasonal rituals. Three, special rituals. Four, the Ise Grand Shrine. Five, position at the Ise Grand Shrine. Six, the role of '' saiin'' priestesses. Seven, '' Daijō-sai.'' Eight, ''

norito are liturgical texts or ritual incantations in Shinto, usually addressed to a given ''kami''. History The first written documentation of ''norito'' dates to 712 CE in the ''Kojiki'' and 720 CE in the ''Nihongi''. The Engishiki, a compilation ...

''. Nine and ten, the upper and lower ''kami''. In addition, as it was no longer possible to maintain the practice of sending religious offerings to all ''myōjin taisha'' shrines, it turned to a practice called which involved making offerings only to the most prominent of these shrines twice a year. This practice expanded to sixteen shrines later, then eventually to

Twenty-Two Shrines The of Japan is one ranking system for Shinto shrines. The system was established during the Heian period and formed part of the government's systematization of Shinto during the emergence of a general anti-Chinese sentiment and the suppression o ...

, and this continued until 1449 (the first year of the

Hōtoku was a after '' Bun'an'' and before ''Kyōtoku.'' This period spanned the years from July 1449 through July 1452. The reigning emperor was . Change of era * 1449 : The era name was changed to mark an event or a number of events. The previous er ...

era) in the Late Middle Ages. In regards to local rituals, provincial officials were dispatched and ranked the shrines in that province, developing the

Ichinomiya is a Japanese language, Japanese historical term referring to the Shinto shrines with the highest rank in a Provinces of Japan, province. Shrines of lower rank were designated , , , and so forth.''Encyclopedia of Shinto'' ''Ichi no miya'' retr ...

system which ordered the shrines to be worshiped at. These officials noted the shrines that saw worship in a , and, later, shrines of ninomiya rank or below were grouped together into a ''

sōja file:Bitchu Kokubunji, zenkei.jpg, 270px, Bitchū Kokubun-ji is a Cities of Japan, city located in Okayama Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 69,428 and a population density of 330 persons per km2. The total area of the ...

'' shrine.

Synthesis with and Separation from Buddhism

After the official introduction of Buddhism in the 6th century, Buddhism spread across Japan through the conflict between the Monobe clan and the

Soga clan The was one of the most powerful aristocratic kin groups Uji (clan), (''uji'') of the Asuka period of the early Japanese state—the Yamato period, Yamato polity—and played a major role in the spread of Buddhism in Japan. Through the 5th and ...

over the adoption of Buddhism. Early on in the adoption, however, Buddhism was not seen as different from Shinto and was taken up in the same way as local Shinto had been. Buddha was called , and some women, such as Shima, Datto Shiba's daughter, left home to maintain Buddhist statues similar to what ''

miko A , or shrine maiden,Groemer, 28. is a young priestess who works at a Shinto shrine. were once likely seen as Shamanism, shamans,Picken, 140. but are understood in modern Japanese culture to be an institutionalized role in daily life, trained ...

'' did. Later, in the 7th century, the ''kami'' were believed to reside in

devaloka In Indian religions, a devaloka or deva loka is a plane of existence where deity, gods aka Deva (Hinduism), devas exist. The deva lokas are usually described as places of eternal light and goodness, similar to the concept of Heaven. Teachers ...

and thought to be seeking liberation just like humans. ''

Jingū-ji Until the Meiji period (1868–1912), the were places of worship composed of a Buddhist temple and a Shinto shrine, both dedicated to a local ''kami''. These complexes were born when a temple was erected next to a shrine to help its kami with it ...

'' were built within shrines as locations where Buddhist practices could occur such as reading Buddhist scriptures before the ''kami''. An early example of this is the ''jingū-ji'' at Tado Shrine founded by the monk Mangan. Buddhist temples also made attempts to move Shinto closer to Buddhism which resulted in the belief that ''kami'' were also Defenders of the Justice, beings who protect dharma, and so ''jinjū-sha'' shrines were built into Buddhist temples. Several faiths appeared during the Heian period which contained elements of both Shinto and Buddhism such as belief in

Goryō In a broad sense, is an honorific for a spirit, especially one that causes hauntings, and the term is used as a synonym for . In a narrower sense, it refers to a person who was a noble or accomplished person in his or her lifetime, but who lost ...

and the Kumano faith which regards Kumano a

Pure land Pure Land is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist concept referring to a transcendent realm emanated by a buddhahood, buddha or bodhisattva which has been purified by their activity and Other power, sustaining power. Pure lands are said to be places ...

, and the influence of Buddhism led to the creation of statues of ''kami'' inspired by Buddhist statues. Shinto-Buddhims syncretism continued as time went on, giving rise to the ''

honji suijaku The term in Japanese religious terminology refers to a theory widely accepted until the Meiji period according to which Indian Buddhist deities choose to appear in Japan as native ''kami'' to more easily convert and save the Japanese.Breen and Te ...

'' theory which claims ''kami'' are the temporary forms of Buddhist deities manifested in Japan to save the people. There were also instances of using Buddhist deity terms such as and ''

gongen A , literally "incarnation", was believed to be the manifestation of a buddha in the form of an indigenous kami, an entity who had come to guide the people to salvation, during the era of shinbutsu-shūgō in premodern Japan.Encyclopedia of Shin ...

'' when referring to ''kami,'' as well as the practice of carving buddhist images, the true forms of the deities, on the backs of mirrors, believed to be the house of the ''kami.'' These mirrors were called because they depicted the ''kami'''s true form. At the same time, the desire to separate Shinto and Buddhism was seen in the imperial court and among the shrines. Regulations such as the and the forbade central officials and officials from the Five Provinces from conducting Buddhist services during the period of the ''Daijō-sai''. Buddhist monks and nuns were also forbidden from attending medium rituals or minor rituals that occurred during purification of the imperial palace, and Buddhist services could not be held in the palace. From the middle of the Heian period onwards, the emperor was also required to stop any Buddhist activities during the period of purification for rituals in which the emperor conducts the purification themself, such as for the ''Niiname-no-Matsuri, Tsukinami-no-Matsuri,'' and the Kannamesai Festival, and other government officials were also meant to avoid Buddhist practices during this time. At the Ise Grand Shrine, some words were considered taboo. For they used and for they used . These indirect terms were even used at the ''saiō'' priestess's residence. While Shinto and Buddhism had begun to blend as a faith, ritualistically, they remained two separate systems.

Development of ''Shugendō'' and ''Onmyōdō''

In ancient Japan, mountains were believed to be other worlds, such as the afterlife, and were rarely entered, but they became areas for ascetic practices during the Nara period under the influence of various factors such as esoteric Buddhism, ''Onmyōdō'', and ''kami'' worship. One figure in the early stages of this practice was En no Ozunu, and ''Shugendō'' was formed as these ascetic mountain practices developed into an organization near the end of the Heian period, with Kinpu Mountain, Kumano Sanzan, the

Three Mountains of Dewa The refer to the three sacred mountains of Mount Haguro, Mount Gassan and Mount Yudono, which are clustered together in the ancient province of Dewa (modern-day Yamagata Prefecture). Holy to the Japanese Shinto religion and especially the moun ...

, and

Mount Togakushi Mount Togakushi () is located in the former village of Togakushi, now located within the city of Nagano, Nagano, Japan. The mountain is 1904 meters (6247 ft) high. Mount Togakushi has traditionally been included in the Five Mountains of Nor ...

prominent examples of mountains of power. This was followed by the establishment of various ''Shugendō'' schools such as the of the

Tendai , also known as the Tendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗, ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just ''Hokkeshū''), is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition with significant esoteric elements that was officially established in Japan in 806 by t ...

school, the of the

Shingon is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asian Buddhism. It is a form of Japanese Esoteric Buddhism and is sometimes called "Tōmitsu" (東密 lit. "Esoteric uddhismof Tō- ...

school, the based at the Three Mountains of Dewa, and the based at

Mount Hiko file:Hoheiden of Hikosan Shrine.jpg, Hikosan Jingu , is a mountain on the border between Fukuoka Prefecture and Ōita Prefecture in Kyūshū, Japan. It straddles the municipalities of Soeda, Fukuoka and Nakatsu, Ōita, with its Topographical sum ...

''Onmyōdō'' was established during the Heian period by the imperial court. It developed independently in Japan based on influences from the philosophies of

yin and yang Originating in Chinese philosophy, yin and yang (, ), also yinyang or yin-yang, is the concept of opposite cosmic principles or forces that interact, interconnect, and perpetuate each other. Yin and yang can be thought of as complementary an ...

and ''

wuxing Wuxing may refer to: Places in China Counties and districts *Huzhou, formerly Wuxing County, Zhejiang, China *Wuxing District (吴兴区), central district of Huzhou Subdistricts (五星街道) * Wuxing Subdistrict, Mudanjiang, in Dong'an Distr ...

'' which came over from China. ''Onmyōdō'''s development also had an impact on Shinto, as some rituals such as the ''Oharae-shiki'' and which had been conducted by the Department of Divinities were later conducted by the , the department of ''Onmyōdō.'' Additionally, the ritual text for the ''Oharae-shiki'', also known as the , changed into the and became used by ''Onmyōdō'' priests. The change was that the original ritual incantation was in the style, in which the words are directed to the ritual's attendees, while the newer incantation was in the style, in which the words are directed to the ''kami''. However, while Shinto rituals were affairs of the state, ''Onmyōdō'' rituals were conducted in an environment of heightened materialistic desires of the aristocrats to request personal success and the curing of illness. Beginning in the 10th century, the department overseeing ''Onmyōdō'' was almost entirely led by successive generations of the Abe and

Kamo clan The is a Japanese '' shake'' clan which traces its roots from a Yayoi period shrine in northeastern Kyoto. The clan rose to prominence during the Asuka and Heian periods when the Kamo are identified with the 7th-century founding of the Kamo Sh ...

Middle Ages

The Shogunate's Shinto System

The shrine system went under a reorganization under the shogunate with the establishment of the

Minamoto no Yoritomo was the founder and the first shogun of the Kamakura shogunate, ruling from 1192 until 1199, also the first ruling shogun in the history of Japan.Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Minamoto no Yoriie" in . He was the husband of Hōjō Masako ...

, the founder of the shogunate, was a devout follower of Shinto and officially acknowledged the

's claim over its territory. Other particularly venerated shrines were the

Izusan Shrine is a Shinto shrine in the city of Atami in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. The shrine has been known by many names in its long history, including . The shrine’s main festival is held annually on April 15. Enshrined ''kami'' The primary ''kami'' ...

Hakone Shrine The is a Japanese Shinto shrine on the shores of Lake Ashi in the town of Hakone in the Ashigarashimo District of Kanagawa Prefecture.Kotodamaya.com"Hakone Jinja" retrieved 2013-1-27. It is also known as the . Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. ( ...

, and Mishima Shrine, and it became custom for future Shoguns to visit Izu Hakone in January every year a practice called which may have been the origin of modern-day ''

Hatsumōde is one of the major Japanese traditions of the new year, which is the first visit to a Buddhist temple or Shinto shrine visit of the Japanese New Year. Typically taking place on the first, second, or third day of the year, it is meant to bring a ...

''. The Magistrate of Temples and Shrines was established in 1194. The

carried on the piety of Minamoto no Yoritomo, as seen in Article 1 of the ''

Goseibai Shikimoku The Goseibai Shikimoku (御成敗式目) or the Formulary of Adjudications was the legal code of the Kamakura shogunate in Japan, promulgated by third shikken Hōjō Yasutoki on 27 August 1232. It is also called Jōei Shikimoku (貞永式目) afte ...

'' enacted in 1232 which called for the reformation of shrines which should focus solely on carrying out rituals. Additionally, the , a legal code released by the shogunate as opposed to the emperor, contained several regulations surrounding religion such as those relating to development of Shinto institutions and the prevention of the misconduct of Shinto priests. Government positions such as the and were established which oversaw religious events rather than the administration of shrines. The Senjū clan began to inherit the ''kitō bugyō'' position during the Muromachi period. The position had been established within the imperial court and was responsible for conveying requests from the shrines to the emperor. However, once the shogunate came into power, this shifted to reporting to the shogun then communicating the shogun's decisions back to the shrines. The retired emperor also conducted more frequent pilgrimages to Kumano Taisha during this period, and the imperial court began to focus more on Shinto rituals as its authority declined as the shogunate rose.

Emperor Juntoku (22 October 1197 – 7 October 1242) was the 84th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1210 through 1221, a part of Japan's Kamakura Period. Genealogy Before his ascension to the C ...

wrote in the , "Shinto matters first, all other matters after."

The People's Faith in the Middle Ages

The faith of the common people also changed during the Middle Ages. During ancient times, the people's faith centered on rituals worshipping local ''ujigami'' to pray for the prosperity of their community. In the Middle Ages, however, ''kami'' with mystical power were divided in a process called ''

bunrei is a Shinto technical term that indicates both the process of dividing a Shinto ''kami'' to be re-enshrined somewhere else (such as a house's ''kamidana are miniature household altars provided to enshrine a Shinto . They are most commonly foun ...

'' and taken to other regions, leading to an increase in shrines called housing these divided ''kami'' where people prayed for individual prosperity. Particularly widely worshipped were ,

Inari Ōkami , also called , is the Japanese ''kami'' of Red fox, foxes, Fertility (soil), fertility, rice, tea, sake, agriculture and Industrial sector, industry, and general prosperity and worldly success, and is one of the principal kami of Shinto. The nam ...

, and

. The region of Kumano was originally believed to be another world where the spirits of the dead went, but the syncretism with Buddhism led to the belief that Kumano was a manifestation of the Pure Land in the real world, with ''Kumano Gongen'' at

Kumano Hongū Taisha is a Shinto shrine located in the jurisdiction of Tanabe, Wakayama, deep in the rugged mountains of the southeast Kii Peninsula of Japan. It is included as part of the Kumano Sanzan in the World Heritage Site "Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Route ...

believed to be Amitābha. Many people went on pilgrimages in groups to Kumano to pray to pass on to the next world in death as well as to receive prosperity in this world, so much so that they became known as the "ants' pilgrimage to Kumano" as they resembled a line of ants. Visits by the retired emperor became common during the Cloistered rule, Insei period as well. Hachiman was brought from Usa Jingū as a divided ''kami'' and protector of Emperor Seiwa by Iwashimizu Hachimangū, while also being worshiped as the guardian ''kami'' of the Seiwa Genji clan, while Minamoto no Yoshiie also established Tsurugaoka Hachimangū in Kamakura with the divided Hachiman. When

established the Kamakura Shogunate, Gokenin, Gokeijin throughout Japan who followed the Kamakura Shogunate also prayed to Hachiman in their own territories, and the Hachiman faith spread throughout the country. Inari was originally the clan deity of the Hata clan, but in the Heian period (794–1185), Inari was revered as the guardian deity of Tō-ji, Toji, and was combined with Dakini to spread throughout Japan as a deity of agriculture. In the Fushimi Inari-taisha, the first day of the first month of the lunar year, many common people would come to the shrine to pray. The first day of the first month of the lunar year is the time when the gods of the mountains descend to the villages to become the gods of the rice fields in the Ta-no-Kami, Tanokami faith. Originally, it was forbidden for anyone but the emperor to make religious offerings or give prayers at the Ise Grand Shrine, but it and other shrines lost their financial foundation in the Middle Ages under the Ritsuryō system which led to religious officials from the shrine, mostly , actively gathering contributions and funds for building costs. They did this through proselytizing and conducting private prayers at manors across the country which spread the Ise faith first to lords and the warrior class, then to the common people. The earlier Kumano faith also contributed to the spread of the Ise faith as pilgrims on the Kumano Pilgrimage had to pass through Ise Grand Shrine along the Ise-Ji Route, resulting in many people beginning to worship the ''kami'' at Ise Grand Shrine. An account of the rebuilding of the outer shrines of Ise Grand Shrine in 1287 in the from the Kamakura Period states, "The exact number of the thousands, tens of thousands of worshippers who attended is unknown," showing the large numbers of common people who traveled to the Ise Grand Shrine. EITOKU_Uesugi-Gion-matsuri

As worship at a main shrine increased, the ''kami'' of those main shrines were divided and brought to various villages. With the rise of the ''shōen'' manorial system as well, the ''kami'' of shrines of the manorial lords were divided and brought across Japan resulting in a third of all shrines of modern Japan being associated with one of the five faiths of Hachiman, Ise, Tenjin, Inari, or Kumano. Festivals for the commonfolk also spread within urban areas. The people began to host the Gion Festival every year after 863 when the Imperial Court held an open at temple of Shinsenen in which the people of the city could participate. During the ''goryōe'', the ''mikoshi'' was paraded around town from the ritual welcome of the ''kami'' at the beginning of the festival until the return to the shrine at the end which was thought to increase the spiritual power of the ''kami''. The residents of Kyoto prepared the ''otabisho'' resting places for the ''mikoshi'' as well as prepared for and conducted the rites, meaning the Imperial Court had little involvement in the public aspects, resulting in a public festival with a strong local feel and identity. Other festivals established by the middle of the Heian period were the Kitano Goryōe, Matsuo Festival, Imamiya Festival, and Inari Festival. Furthermore, as the villages of the manors became more autonomous and as the self-governing communal villages were established, administrative village organizations overseeing faith activities called gained attention as organizers of festivals. The ''miyaza'' were led by elders known as or while younger members were responsible for conducting the rituals. Shrines became a spiritual center for the villagers as they recited oaths to the ''kami'' there when the village made decisions, as well as conducted when forming a group such as an . The villagers would visit the shrine even during their daily lives as farmers, and the head of the shrine was selected for a year-long term from among the villagers.

Development of Shinto Theory and the ''Honji Suijaku'' Theory

A movement spread through the intellectual class to develop a doctrine for and incorporate the religion of Shinto into their ideals. The first attempt was the Theory developed around the mid-Heian period by esoteric Buddhist monks using esoteric terminology. An early example of this is seen in written by Shingon Buddhist monk Seison in the 11th century in which he depicts

as the same being as Vairocana and argues Japan is well suited to the spread of esoteric Buddhism. The most important Shinto theories of the Middle Ages were derived from this theory. Following this, Buddhist monks began to frequent the Ise Great Shrine, including Chōgen (monk), Chōgen in 1186, with many ''Ryōbu Shintō'' texts written in monk residences located within the Ise Great Shrine's territory. The and the are believed to be early examples of such texts. These texts place the shrine's Inner Shrine as the Womb Realm and the Outer Shrine as the Diamond Realm of esoteric Buddhism, and both together are seen as a manifestation in this world of a mandala. Additionally, Amaterasu is said to be Brahma, Brahmā as Surya, while Toyouke-hime is said to be Brahmā as Chandra. The was compiled afterwards as a collection of secret theories based in Shingon Buddhism and became a representative text of ''Ryōbu Shintō''. As Shinto manuscripts and writings were developed at temples, ''Ryōbu Shintō''-style schools were established to pass down the writings, along with the establishment of several other factions including founded by Imperial Prince-Monk Shukaku Hosshinō and which developed at Byōdō-in, Byōdō-ji Temple near

. These ''Ryōbu Shintō'' schools passed down their secrets while conducting ''abhisheka'' and initiations in a similar way to esoteric Buddhism in a practice known as . Sanno_Miya_Mandala

Shinto theories developed not only from Shingon Buddhism, but also from ideals based on Buddhist-Shinto syncretism from the view of Tiantai, Tiantai Buddhism. The foundation of this was an explanation of the significance of the ''kami'' of Hiyoshi Taisha, the guardian ''kami'' of Mount Hiei, through the lens of Tendai, Tendai Buddhist thought. This was called Sannō Ichijitsu Shintō, Sannō Shintō. The was written in the 13th century, and it was said the Buddha manifested as Ōkuninushi, Ōnamuchi of the main shrine, Nishi Hongū, of Hiyoshi Taisha to save the people of Japan, a small country in the Three Ages of Buddhism, Degenerate Age of Dharma. Additionally, the monk wrote the in the 14th century in which he asserted not just Ōnamuchi but all ''kami'' of Hiyoshi Taisha were manifestations of buddhas. Afterwards, Gigen's disciple, , wrote the in which he systemized the doctrine by linking all Tendai Buddhism to Hiyoshi Taisha ''kami''. He also claimed the Hiyoshi Taisha ''kami'' innately resided within people's hearts. As the belief of original enlightenment spread, the idea that people are already enlightened regardless of their religious practices, these writings began to claim the ''kami'', as beings more familiar to the Japanese people, were in fact the true form and buddhas were a manifestation of the ''kami'' in what was known as the . Shinto theory in the Tendai school was primarily developed by a group of monks known as . hanging scrolls began to appear in the late Kamakura period in Tōdai-ji or the ancient region of Nara. These were the words of the three ''kami'' Amaterasu, Hachiman, and Kasuga Daimyojin, expressing the tenets of honesty, purity, and mercy in ''kanbun'' style. These three ''kami'' in particular become the object of this worship because it was said they, Amaterasu, the ancestor deity of the imperial family, Hachiman, the patron deity of the samurai class (Seiwa Genji), and Kasuga Daimyojin, the patron deity of the noble class (the Fujiwara clan), entered into a divine pact with each other in the Age of the Gods, resulting in the belief that it was in the Age of the Gods that those three classes were bound to work in coordination as they rule. As Buddhist-Shinto syncretism spread during the Middle Ages, various shrines began to create , writings and illustrations of religious histories, particularly of the religious institutions themselves. Prominent examples include the , the , and the , as well as the , a collection of such texts created in the 14th century. It is believed these texts and illustrations were created by the religious institutions to receive reliable patronage from the samurai class as the Imperial Court declined at the outset of the Middle Ages. This period also saw the spread of Middle Ages Mythology, a body of Shinto myths reinterpreted through a lens of Buddhist-Shinto syncretism. The ''Honji Suijaku'' theory was incorporated into Jōdo Shinshū, Shin Buddhism which rapidly grew during the Kamakura period. One Buddhist monk of the school, Zonkaku, authored the in which he divided Japan's shrines into , shrines which housed a manifestation of a buddha, and , shrines which did not, and argued that only the ''kami'' of ''gonsha'' should be worshipped. Even in the Nichiren Buddhism, Nichiren school of Buddhism, the monk Nichiren himself actively incorporated Shinto into the school, which his disciple Nichizō systemized into Hokke Shinto. Their belief was that if the true dharma as based on the Lotus Sutra was correctly conducted, then the with Atsuta Shrine, Atsuta no Ōkami at their head would protect Japan, each one protecting for a day in a rotation. Other schools to take up the ''Honji Suijaku'' theory with varying approaches were the Ji-shu, Jishū school, the Rinzai school, and the Sōtō, Sōtō school.

Japan as a Divine Land and the Inverted ''Honji Suijaku'' Theory

As that was occurring within the Buddhist faith, Shinto institutions were also receiving influence from external religions such as Buddhism while movements to create doctrine for and internalize Shinto grew more actively. Inverted ''honji suijaku'' theories which placed the ''kami'' above buddhas also developed in opposition to the ''honji suijaku'' theory. The collapse of the Ritsuryō system produced a sense of crisis among the Shinto authorities as the foundation that supported their existence was shaken. Shinto authorities began creating writings for Shinto rituals in an attempt to gain religious authority and claim Shinto's place in resistance to Buddhism as Buddhist authorities were actively closing in on the world of the ''kami'' and attempting to reinterpret Shinto using Buddhist theories. Also in the background during the creation of systemized Shinto theory was Japan's victory in the Mongol invasions of Japan which resulted in a belief of Japan as a divine land protected by the ''kami'', a belief which strengthened during this period along with the authority of the Ise Shrine through the increase throughout Japan of , territories belonging to the shrine originally for the production of offerings to the ''kami''. The first school to do this was Ise Shinto, established in the mid-Kamakura period. Ise Shinto is a school of Shinto established primarily by the Watarai clan who were priests of the Outer Shrine with the as central texts. Of the five Scriptures, the and were created relatively early. They referenced the Womb World-Diamond World theory of Ryōbu Shintō as they placed the Inner and Outer Shrines on the same level, continuing on with plans to place the Outer Shrine in a superior position. These writings identified the ''kami'' of the Outer Shrine, Toyouke-hime, to be Ame-no-Minakanushi, one of the original ''kami'', to increase her standing compared to

, as well as defined the Inner Shrine as the ''Wuxing (Chinese philosophy), Wuxing'' agent of Fire and the Outer Shrine as the agent of Water in an attempt to raise the Outer Shrine's standing as Water regulates Fire. The ''kami'' Takuhadachiji-hime, mother of Ninigi-no-Mikoto, was also placed as a grandchild of Toyouke-hime, inserting Toyouke-hime into the imperial ancestral line. Other movements in addition to these ''kami'' theories included an emphasis on Japan as a divine land through preaching the eternal nature of the imperial line, the dignity of the Imperial Regalia of Japan, Three Sacred Treasures, and the honor of the shrines, a spread of reason and morality based on the Two Great Virtues of Shinto, honesty and purity, and a focus on the diligent practice of, cleansing prior to, and purification through Shinto rituals. Ise Shinto further developed as a result of what is known as the which revolved around the addition of the character meaning "divine" or "imperial" was added to the Outer Shrine's name in 1296. Center of the Outer Shrine at the time Yukitada Watarai referenced the first two of the ''Shintō Gobusho'' as evidence of the Outer Shrine's legitimacy, authored the further three of the five, , , and , then spread those writings of Ise Shinto throughout society. Ieyuki Watarai followed Yukitada Watarai as center of the Outer Shrine and established Ise Shinto. In addition to penning the and systemizing Ise Shinto while references various other writings from Neo-Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, he also presented , a theory unique to Shinto doctrine. According to this theory, the chaotic state that existed prior to the world's formation was called, that this ''kizen'' was the source of consciousness, as well as the essence of the ''kami''. He further preached maintaining purity was how one uses ''kizen''. Later, Tsuneyoshi Watarai claimed the Inner and Outer Shrines were of equal standing as the Watarai Clan served the Inner Shrine before the Outer Shrine was established and that the view of Toyouke-hime as a ''kami'' of Water allowed a comparison of the two ''kami'' to the Sun and the Moon. Just as the Sun and the Moon together light the heavens, so do Amaterasu and Toyouke-hime stand together. Kitabatake_Chikafusa

At the opening of the Nanboku-chō period, Kitabatake Chikafusa wrote the and the while influenced by Ise Shinto in which he noted the imperial line remained unbroken since the Age of Gods and argued Japan was superior due to being a divine land. He also argued the emperor is required to have Confucian virtues and must not abandon the various teachings of religion. It was also during this period that Tendai monk Jihen also received influence from Ise Shinto and wrote in which he presented a depiction of the emperor as sovereign and established political discourse within Shinto. Court noble Ichijō Kaneyoshi wrote the in which he conducts a philosophical analysis of the scrolls on the Age of Gods of the

, forming Shinto thought. Inobe-no-Masamichi wrote the which discussed Shinto theology through commentary of those same scrolls.

Formation of Yoshida Shinto

The destruction of Kyoto during the

in the Ōnin period affected many temples and shrines and resulted in the cessation of rituals, including the Daijōsai and crowning ceremonies. One Shinto priest most affected by the turmoil was Yoshida Kanemoto. Kanemoto had served at the Yoshida Shrine which was lost in the fires of war, along with tens of lives of the residents living in the area around the shrine. In his turmoil, he fled into the wilds. However, the loss of many ancient texts in the war became an opportunity for new Shinto doctrine to develop in the form of Yoshida Shinto. The Yoshida family's original name was Urabe, of the Urabe Clan. As Shinto priests, they specialized in tortoise-shell divination and long inherited the position of , the second-highest position in the Department of Divinities. In the Middle Ages, Urabe no Kanekata was an expert of research into Japanese texts, as seen in the he authored, earning the Yoshida family the monicker of "House of Japanese Chronicles". Kanemoto went on to write the and the in which he compiled Shinto thought from the Middle Ages while incorporating discourse from several other religions to present a new Shinto theory in the form of Yoshida Shinto. In his writings, Kanemoto divided Shinto into three varieties: (the histories passed down by shrines), , and . He further claimed the ''Gempon-sōgen Shintō'' passed down by his own family was the only true Shinto transmitted since the very origin of the country. He also placed the ''kami'' as the peak of all things, and Shinto as the origin of all things. In regard to the relationship between Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism, he strongly purported a root-leaf-fruit theory which claimed Shinto was the roots, Confucianism was the leaves that grew in China, and Buddhism was the fruit which blossomed in India. This argued that while the three religions were one, Shinto was the true religion. Yoshida_shrine_funeral_hall

Additionally, he claimed Shinto had three aspects: the body, its true essence, the appearance, how it manifests, and the purpose, how it affects the world. These three aspects govern the sun and the moon, the warmth and the cold, nature, and all other phenomena. Ultimately, his Shinto theory was a type of pantheism in that he claimed the ''kami'' resided within all things in existence, permeating the entire universe. In addition to his theories of Shinto, Kanemoto developed many rituals. He began by building the at Yoshida Shrine. This enshrined the ''kami'' of Ise Shrine, the Hasshinden, and the more than 3,000 ''kami'' of the Engishiki shrines. He then declared the Daigengū to be the root of all religion in Japan from the time of its founding, as well as the main shrine for all shrines throughout the country. Furthermore, with influence from esoteric Buddhism, he created three rituals known collectively as the . These included the , the , and a Homa (ritual), homa ritual which consisted of lighting a fire in the octagonal dais in the center of the hearth then praying as grains and rice porridge were cast into the fire. These Shinto theories were purported to have been developed based on a collection of three writings known as the which include , , and . These scriptures are said to contain the teachings of Ame-no-Koyane, however, they are considered fictitious as there is no evidence they were ever created. Kanemoto himself fabricated writings resembling these scriptures under the names of other authors, such as Fujiwara no Kamatari. He also fabricated the history of the Daigengū Saijōsho. Yoshida Shinto also established the ceremony for Shinto funerals in which people are worshipped as ''kami''. There had been little engagement with funerals prior to this as Shinto viewed death as Kegare, impure, and it was only when appeasing vengeful spirits through worship such as in the case of goryō or Tenjin that people could be considered ''kami''. Yoshida Shinto, however, held a belief in a close relationship between people and ''kami'' and thus actively conducted funerals. In fact, the was constructed above Kanemoto's remains and became a shrine housing him as a ''kami''. Yoshida Shinto became an emerging force, with its rise perhaps contributed to by the societal unrest caused by the warring of the period. The sect spread widely, particularly among the upper class with Hino Tomiko's patronage of the Daigengū upon its construction as well as an imperial sanction in 1473, allowing it to become central to the Shinto sphere in the modern era. However, it also received strong resistance, such as from the priests of both the Inner and Outer Shrines of Ise Shrine. Yoshida Shinto is the first Shinto theory to have its own doctrines, scriptures, and rituals independent of Buddhism while amalgamating Shinto from the Middle Ages and reaching across religious lines to incorporate discourse from various religions. Several scholars consider the establishment of Yoshida Shinto a turning point in the religion's history, such as Shinto scholar Shōji Okada who called it a transitional period for Shinto, and historian

who claims the creation of Yoshida Shinto was the creation of Shinto itself. Having established Shinto funerals, Yoshida Shinto went on in the Sengoku period to become involved with the founding of shrines which worshipped the daimyo of the time as ''kami'', including the founding of the Toyokuni Shrine (Kyoto), Toyokuni Shrine in Kyoto, in which Toyotomi Hideyoshi was enshrined as a ''kami''. Additionally, Bonshun of the Yoshida family recited Shinto prayers for Tokugawa Ieyasu and conducted Ieyasu's Shinto funeral upon his death in accordance with his will.

Early modern times

The Shogunate's Restoration of the Shinto System and Imperial Rites

The administration of shrines was restructured once the

began after the end of the wartime of the Sengoku period. The Shogunate officially recognized the territory controlled at the time by each shrine and granted them the right to refuse entry to ''shugo'' and their officials. Those regions that received this directly from the Shogun were referred to as while those who received it from the regional lord were called . However, being acknowledged in this way meant the shrine's right to profit and to own land was given to the Shogunate. The Shogunate also established the position which was placed at the top of the three Tokugawa ''bugyō'' positions under Rōjū authority (the other two ''bugyō'' it was above being the Machi-bugyō, Machi Bugyō and Kanjō bugyō). The position was also established as an advisory role to the Jisha Bugyō who they reported to. They were responsible for researching ancient Shinto practices and ceremony documents. This position became hereditary within the Yoshikawa family following Yoshikawa Kikkawa's service in the position. Special ''bugyō'' positions were also assigned to select shrines such as the which oversaw Ise Shrine and the which oversaw Nikkō Tōshō-gū. In 1665, the Shogunate enacted the which gave the Yoshida family almost complete control over all clergy members including requiring general clergy members without a court rank to receive a from the Yoshida family before wearing or . However, shrines which received court status previously from the Imperial Court such as Ise Shrine, the Kamo shrines, Kasuga-taisha, Usa Jingū, Izumo-taisha, and Fushimi Inari-taisha were allowed to operate through the as they had in the past rather than through the Yoshida family. This law also instated a punishment for neglect of duties for those in the clergy, prohibited the buying and selling of shrine territory, and stipulated a duty to maintain the shrines. With the creation of the , the Shogunate required all funerals to be held at the family's registered temple in what was known as the , essentially requiring all common people to have Buddhist funerals. Some people, such as the Yoshida family and family of hereditary priest lines at influential temples, were allowed Shinto funerals with approval of the Jisha Bugyō. This restriction was relaxed in the mid-Edo period as the anti-danka movement developed, allowing those who had agreed with their registered temple to receive a and have a Shinto funeral. When this happened, the shrine rather than the temple confirmed the person was not Christian and issued what was called a rather than a of affiliation. The Shogunate also provided financial support for the partial revival of imperial rites which had been suspended during the warring period. The Daijosai, Daijōsai—which had been suspended for 222 years ever since the ascension of Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado—was revived for Emperor Higashiyama and then made permanent at the ascension of Emperor Sakuramachi. The Niiname-no-Matsuri, Niinamesai was also revived in 1688, the year following the year the Daijōsai was restored. The practice of sending ''heihaku'' ritual offerings from the emperor to select shrines also restarted during this time with ''heihaku'' delivered to the Twenty-two shrines, Upper Seven Shrines, Usa Jingū, Kashii-gū in 1744. offerings which were sent from the imperial court for the Kannamesai Festival, Kannamesai were also reinstated in 1647 by order of Emperor Go-Kōmyō. Ise Shrine's ritual rebuilding process called the Shikinen Sengū had also been discontinued but was also revived during the Azuchi–Momoyama period through the combined efforts of Buddhist nuns Seijun and Shūyō of Keikō-in Temple. While the

, which was burned in the warring period, was not restored, the Hasshinden in the Saijōsho of Yoshida Shrine did take its place. The Shogunate also instated regulations in regards to Shugendō with the enactment of the in 1613 forbidding any not affiliated with either the Tōzan Sect or the Honzan Sect from mountain ascetic practices. This caused Shugendō practitioners to split into two groups: those who resided in the mountains, and those who resided in settlements practicing what was called . It was these latter Shugendō practitioners who filled a role of guiding the common people in their folk beliefs, such as in the practice of Kōshin.

Popular beliefs in the early modern era

Following the early modern period, the Shinto faith spread more throughout the common class due to the recovery of societal stability and improvements in travel, such as with the construction of the ''kaidō'' road system and establishment of ''shukuba'' station towns along them. Throughout the land, people formed associations called . Particularly widespread were in which the association gathered a modest sum of money from the members every year and selected one member by lottery to travel to the shrine where they collected each member’s ''ofuda'' from the shrine. Other associations spread across the country which traveled to specific prominent shrines such as the which went to Ise Shrine, the Fujisan-kō which went to Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha, Konbira-kō, Inari-kō, and Akiha-kō. Each association formed a relationship with an or a guide who would arrange lodging for when the pilgrim(s) came for prayers or to visit the shrine. Faith in Ise Shinto in particular saw a strong surge during this period. ''Oshi'' of Ise Shrine proselytized through traveling priests who visited one to three times a year by giving them Jingū taima or copies of the to give out, along with regional products such as a type of cosmetic called or Ise tea. The ''oshi'' also invited visitors to their own homes and treated them to kagura performances, alcohol, Ise delicacies, and down quilts in addition to providing tours to the Inner and Outer Shrines of Ise or famous historical sites to allow visitors to fully experience the much-desired visit to Ise Shrine. All of this led to increased following of the Ise Faith by the people, with the occurring several times in the Edo period in which millions of visitors traveled to Ise Shrine at once. Over 90% of households across Japan had an Ise ''ofuda'' in their home. Many guidebooks were published during this period as visits to shrines became more common among the people. Several were published that catalogued temples and shrines across the country and introduced them to the people such as by Saitō Gesshin, by Kobei Namiki, and by Sanchō Oka. Furthermore, the popularity of Jippensha Ikku’s Tōkaidōchū Hizakurige about a misadventure-filled journey to Ise Shrine influenced other works, leading to literature centered on stories of pilgrimages to Ise such as the genre of called , and this also contributed to the people’s faith in Ise Shinto. In contrast, as non-religious visits to shrines and temples became more frequent, entertainment providers began to operate outside the temple or shrine, or even within its grounds, including , unlicensed prostitutes, outdoor performances, and impersonation artists. Edo-period writer and critic Buyō Inshi wrote a critique of the state of temple and shrine visits in the , stating, “The area just outside the gates of temples and shrines has become a land of debauchery.” Gezicht_op_het_festival_bij_het_Myojin_heiligdom_in_Kanda-Rijksmuseum_RP-P-1952-191A

Gezicht_op_het_festival_bij_het_Myojin_heiligdom_in_Kanda-Rijksmuseum_RP-P-1952-191A

In addition to this increase in visitors to shrines, festivals for urban commoners grew as non-locals attended festivals even if they were not worshippers of that ''kami''. Examples of festivals that saw expansion include Sannō Matsuri of Hie Shrine (one of the ), Nezu Festival of Nezu Shrine, and Kanda Matsuri of Kanda Shrine. Spectators were drawn to the festivals to see the ornately crafted stalls and floats in competition with each other or parades costumed as Korean delegations or a daimyo’s procession. Festivals grew in many other cities as well, such as with Gion Matsuri, Gion Festival and Imamiya Matsuri of Kyoto, Tenjin Matsuri of Osaka, Hiyoshi Sannō Matsuri of Shiga, Chichibu Night Festival of Saitama, and Takayama Festival of Gifu. Some of these festivals had been passed down through the ages since before this period, but many of them were restarted thanks to the improved social stability of the early modern period. Urban festivals fell into two categories in terms of their financial sourcing: those financed primarily by the local lord, and those financed by the townsfolk. When financed by the lord, the lord would require townspeople to fill labor requirements such as in preparing the roads and breeding , as well as had them participate in the festival as float bearers. When the people financed the festival, an organizer called a was selected and they would either bear the financial burden or share it with the town. While the lords did issue expenditure regulations in these cases, they otherwise provided the people freedom in running the festival. As the number of Shinto followers increased amongst the common people, lecturers appeared that provided education to the common people through oral talks. Masuho Zankō of Asahi Shinmei-gū Shrine was one such people and delivered talks in a clever and humorous style. His was not an academic style of Shinto that sought its foundation in scriptures but rather drew freely from the three religions of Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism to apply Shinto to problems both spiritual and practical. He preached of a morality applicable to the commoner such as harmony between husband and wife and equality between men and women, and taught a fundamental principle of Shinto was that people should strive to live up to their standing, all of which were teachings commoners sought as they lived in a status-based society. The religious education activities of these lecturers influenced the Shinto followers of the next era. Masakane Inoue, a clergy member of Umeda Shinmei Shrine, established the Misogikyo, Misogikyō sect of Shinto and taught the practice of , proper breathing, and of reciting the while leaving one’s fate in the hands of the ''kami''. He gained many followers this way, but the shogunate grew suspicious of him and he was banished to Miyake-jima, Miyakejima. Kurozumikyō was another sect established by Kurozumi Munetada, a clergy member of Imamura-gū Shrine in which he taught all were one with

regardless of social class, teachings which spread widely across the different social ranks. Additionally, Ishida Baigan, founder of Shingaku, Sekimon-shingaku which would become the largest sect among the populace in the early modern period, was influence by these Shinto lecturers in his youth, leading him to place an emphasis on the medieval Shinto virtue of honesty as he found harmony between the teachings of Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism in order to express concepts to the common people and merchant class. In the late Edo period, Ninomiya Sontoku preached his which consisted of the four principles of sincerity, diligence, economy (living within one’s means), and service (giving to others) as “the great path of genesis” and “the great path of Shinto” as Amaterasu had opened in the form of the land of Mizuho. He described his own teachings as an amalgamation of Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism with a good helping of Shinto and dashes of Buddhism and Confucianism.

The establishment of Confucian Shinto

During the Edo period, while Buddhism held a state religion-like status under the Danka system, ''terauke'' system, it stagnated intellectually as a whole. In the intellectual sphere, Confucianism, particularly the Cheng–Zhu school, flourished greatly as it was effective as an ideology to support the shogun-daimyo system and preached ethics suitable for the secularism of the Edo period. Buddhism, with its rejection of worldly matters, faced much criticism from Confucianists who saw it as incompatible with secular ethics. In tandem with the rise of Cheng–Zhu Confucianism, mainstream Shinto theories shifted from Shinto-Buddhism syncretism to Confucian Shinto. While there were Shinto theories advocated for by the Yangmingism, Yangmingism faction, such as those from Nakae Tōju's ], most of these Shinto theories were formed by those in the Cheng–Zhu school. Although Confucian thought was also incorporated into Shinto-Buddhism syncretised ideology, Confucian Shinto differed in that it explicitly criticized Buddhism and sought to break away from its influence. At the same time, Confucian Shinto’s logical structure was heavily influenced by medieval esoteric traditions in such a way that the Buddhist theories of Shinto-Buddhism syncretism were replaced with Cheng–Zhu Confucianism theories such that it could be said this was a transition period between the Middle Ages and the early modern period. Razan_Hayashi

The forerunner of Confucian Shinto was Hayashi Razan. As Hayashi spread Cheng–Zhu Confucianism knowledge throughout Japan, he studied Shinto, wrote and , and formed his own Shinto theory known as Ritō Shinchi Shintō, Ritō Shinchi Shinto. According to his ideology, the Confucian concept of Li (Confucianism), Li was one in the same with Shinto’s ''kami'', and Li’s ultimate manifestation was the ''kami'' Kuni-no-Tokotachi, which effectively merged Confucianism’s Li with Shinto’s ''kami.'' Furthermore, Hayashi advocated for the idea of Japan as a divine land and criticized Buddhism with claims that pre-Buddhism Japan was superior and purer. Additionally, using a lens of Sinocentricism, he claimed Emperor Jimmu was a descendent of Taibo and the Imperial Regalia of Japan, Three Sacred Treasures were an expression of Confucianism’s Three Vitues, and therefore Japan had long belonged to the Sinosphere which was why Japan had such an advanced civilization. He also claimed Shinto was in fact a political system given to the emperor by

and handed down through the generations, called the rituals of the average shrine and festivals held by the people “Shinto of witchcraft and plays”, and rejected those who practiced them as mere actors. Changes were seen in Yoshida Shinto as well. , a merchant at the time, joined the Yoshida family and was made the official successor by the head of the Yoshida family, Hagiwara Kaneyori. Yoshikawa removed Buddhist discourse from Yoshida Shinto and added in a significant amount of Confucian discourse, creating Shinto sects and schools, Yoshikawa Shinto. Beliefs of Yoshikawa Shinto included, foremost, that Shinto was the source of all things, as well as that Kuni-no-Tokotachi presided over the entire world, and that that world and humans within it were created by the ''kami'', which were one in the same with the Confucian concept of Li. Because of this, the human body was certain to contain Li, making humans fundamentally one with the ''kami''. However, humans’ divine wisdom was clouded by impurity, and they must return to their natural form through self-restraint. Specific methods for which this was accomplished was purification of the self, both inside and out, demonstrations of sincerity through the conducting of rituals, and praying to the ''kami''. It was also believed that Confucianism’s Five Great Relationships were a duty given to humanity by the ''kami'', with the ruler-subjects relationship being of particular importance. Even Ise Shrine, Ise Shinto saw the rejection of Buddhist teachings and adoption of Confucian thought in the early Edo period through the priest Deguchi Nobuyoshi to form . Deguchi wrote several works on Shinto theory including and in which he stated the true nature of Shinto was a path that was only natural for the Japanese people to take for their daily lives, an everyday path for carrying out one’s duty with an honest and pure heart. He argued one must keep the ''kami'' in mind during every moment of their daily lives, from moving their limbs to eating and drinking, and that it was wrong to think of Shinto as simply reciting prayers or holding a Tamagushi, ''tamagushi'' at a shrine’s ritual. While he did admit that, ultimately, all religions are a common and universal path which align with each other and that Shinto and Confucianism in particular had many aspects in common, he argued that the governmental systems and cultural practices of each country are different and the Japanese people should respect Japanese law and customs. Therefore, he argued it was wrong to use Confucianism and Buddhism for the purpose of creating a syncretized system. He claimed that while he did use Confucianism himself, it was only because it naturally had commonalities with Shinto. He was not attempting to force a merging of the two religions. He also went on to say that there was nothing wrong with studying Confucianism or Buddhism so long as one’s central focus was on Shinto, and that it was against the natural progression of things, and therefore unaligned with Shinto, to ban Confucianism or Buddhism or eliminate current customs with some claim they were harmful. Yamazaki_Ansai

These Confucian Shinto theories were compiled by Yamazaki Ansai. After making a name for himself as a Confucianist, Yamazaki was employed by Hoshina Masayuki, the Daimyō, ''daimyō'' of the Aizu Domain, where he met Yoshikawa Koretari, who was also a tutor for Hoshino, and learned Yoshikawa Shinto. This resulted in Yamazaki creating his own form of Shinto, . Suika Shinto linked the Neo-Confucian school of Cheng-zhu to the Kamiyonanayo, Kamiyo-nanayo ''kami'' and identified Kuni-no-Tokotachi as the Confucian concept of Taiji (philosophy), taiji. He also claimed the five ''kami'' born after Kuni-no-Tokotachi were the Wuxing (Chinese philosophy), Five Agents of wuxing, and the final ''kami'' created of those, Izanami and Izanagi, brought together the Five Agents to create the earth, the ''kami'', and humans. The spirits of these ''kami'' that created humanity also reside within humans, and humans and ''kami'' together are united as one in the “sole way of heaven and man”. In addition, he stated Shinto was the way in which humans live in accordance with the ''kami'', that humans must receive divine protection from the ''kami'' through prayer, and that they must be honest in that prayer. The most important thing for achieving that honesty was the Confucian concept of Jing (philosophy), ''jing''. Similarly to Yoshikawa Shinto, there was a strong focus on the ruler-subjects relationship. The ruler-subjects relationship was not seen as one of opposition or power, but rather that rulers and subjects were one unified group, and a true ruler-subjects relationship in Shinto was the one which had long protected Japan through the two protecting each other. The relationship between the sovereign and the vassal is not one of rivalry or power, but one of unity, and the sovereign and the vassal have protected the country through their mutual protection. This had a significant impact on later attitudes of reverence towards the emperor. After Yamazaki Ansai’s death, his pupil Ōgimachi Kinmichi succeeded him, and Suika Shinto flourished, spreading across Japan from its focal points in Edo and Kyoto where it was widely taken up by the nobility, warrior class, and priesthood and became the greatest influence in the Shinto world. After Ōgimachi’s death, his pupil Tamaki Masahide succeeded him and systemized his one, two, three, and fourfold secret teachings which placed his writings in the as the ultimate great mystery. In addition to his systemization of Suika Shinto, he created his own Shinto theory, Shinto sects and schools, Kikke Shinto. This move of transforming Suika Shinto thought into secret teachings was criticized by some, such as Kawabayashi Kyōsai, as they felt it obscured Yamazaki Ansai’s original intentions. Forms of Shinto passed down by families were also influenced by Suika Shinto leading to a widespread move to create doctrines for and systemize them. Examples of Shinto influenced in this way include Kikke Shinto, as mentioned previously, as well as of the Shirakawa clan and Tensha Tsuchimikado Shinto, Tsuchimikado Shinto, a form of Onmyōdo Shinto. One of Tamaki Masahide’s pupils, Yoshimi Yukikazu, wrote the and provided grounds to argue that ''Shintō'' ''Gōbusho'' were fake writings of the Middle Ages while also criticizing Ise Shinto and Yoshida Shinto in addition to Suika Shinto, which used the ''Shintō Gōbusho'' as its central texts. During this period, Yoshimi become a pupil of Keichū. This transition reflected a trend of the times in which mainstream Shinto theory shifted from Suika Shinto to Kokugaku, ''kokugaku''. In fact, Suika Shinto theory began to stagnate after Tamaki Masahide and was overtaken by ''kokugaku'' as the primary theory. In conjunction with this trend of anti-Buddhist ideology, a movement to separate Buddhism and Shinto spread through a portion of the daimyo. Tokugawa Mitsukuni of the

Mito Domain was a Japanese domain of the Edo period. It was associated with Hitachi Province in modern-day Ibaraki Prefecture.Tendai , also known as the Tendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗, ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just ''Hokkeshū''), is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition with significant esoteric elements that was officially established in Japan in 806 by t ...

and

to renounce their vows, while at the same time reducing the number of temples and recommending Shinto funeral ceremonies over the standard Buddhist ones of the time. In 1647, Matsudaira Naomasa, leader of the Matsue Domain, led Izumo-taisha, a shrine which had been influenced by Suika Shinto, in eliminating all Buddhist element.

Development of Kokugaku

In the mid-Edo period,

began to flourish in place of Confucian Shinto. The origin of

can be traced to poets such as Kinoshita Naganjako, Kise Miyuki, Toda Shigekazu, Shimokawabe Nagaryu, and Kitamura Kiigin, who composed poems that rejected the medieval norms of poetry in the early Edo period. Qi Oki worked hard on the study of the national scriptures while moving from temple to temple, and left behind such achievements as the empirical study of poetry and Kanazukai, Study of Kana Spelling by writing such works as "Manyo Dai Shouki" and "Waza Shouransho", and established the method of empirical study of the classics rather than reading and interpreting them in the style of Confucian and Buddhist doctrines. He was succeeded by Kada no Azumamaro. Harumitsu was born into the Higashi-Hagura family, who were priests to the Fushimi Inari Taisha shrine, and later moved to Edo to give lectures. Although there is no evidence that Harumitsu was directly apprenticed to Qi Oki, there are many books by Qi Oki in Harumitsu's collection, including "Manyo Dai Shouki", and his own commentaries on the Man'yoshu, such as "Man'yoshu Hokuanshou", mostly follow Qi Oki's readings.He was greatly influenced by Qi Oki. As can be seen in the Sogakusei, Shunman had the intention of organizing history, yushoku-nijitsu, and theology as a school under the name of wagaku, and in Shunman, Shinto and language studies (by Qi oki and others) were integrated as "Kokugaku". Kamo no Mabuchi was born into a branch of the

, who were priests at the Kamo Shrine, and studied under Kunitokazu Sugiura, a student of Harumitsu. After Harumitsu's death, Mabuchi's fame as a scholar of Japanese literature increased, and he was recommended by to Tokugawa Munetake. Mabuchi also studied the Man'yōshū, and as part of this, he also studied the Norito, writing and annotating "Man'yōkō", "Kanjikō", and "Shūshūkō". In "Kokuyi-kou", he presented a diagrammatic methodology that extends from the study of ancient words to the study of ancient meanings and ancient ways.、Anti-Confucian ideology and respect for ancient Japan was given to Kokugaku. In contrast to Confucianism, which brought strife to the world by preaching humanity, the Japanese of the Kamidae period had an upright mind that converged on the "two kashikomi" of "God" and "the Emperor," and society was naturally harmonious without the need to preach humanity. However, the content of the ancient path is only fragmentarily described by Mafuchi in contrast to Confucian ethics.、He also taught that it was consistent with Daojia, Laozhuang Thought, and did not go so far as to derive a system of thought directly from the classics to develop systematic theology. After Mabuchi,

succeeded Mabuchi and became a great scholar of Japanese literature. He was born into a merchant family, and while studying medicine, he became interested in Japanese classics and waka poetry, and worked hard on his studies of Japanese literature while practicing medicine. 34 years old, he met Mabuchi for the first time in his life and became his teacher, and continued to study under him until Mabuchi's death. At the age of 34, he had the only meeting with Mabuchi in his life and became his teacher. He also developed the aspect of Shinto theology in Kokugaku. He also criticized the Confucian idea of Mandate of Heaven, in which "Tian, Heaven" always supports the saints to be Son of Heaven, as a way for those who have taken the country and become kings to justify themselves. On the other hand, Japan has not taught like Confucianism or Buddhism since ancient times, but even if there is no clever teaching, the grandson of Tensho Omikami will squeeze the country, and the world will be settled without being disturbed from top to bottom. He argued that there was a true way in Japan that he couldn't say one by one, saying that it had been transmitted, and that the reason was that there was never a change of dynasty in Japan, whereas in China where there should be Confucian teachings, what? He mentioned that the prince was murdered and the dynasty was replaced. He strongly criticized Buddhist and Confucian Shinto, which interpreted Shinto in accordance with Buddhist and Confucian doctrines. He also criticized the science of Zhu Xi, which teaches that the world is created by yin and yang, and the spirit of reason, as an empty theory created by the sages based on their own speculation. He also criticized Lao Zhuang Thought, which describes heaven and earth as "the way that comes naturally.、He argued that all events in the heavens and the earth are governed by the Shinto gods, and that the evil that exists in the world governed by the gods is the work of the evil god Mazutsunichi. He took mythology as fact, and developed the theory of agnosticism, which states that attempting to interpret the workings of the heavens and the earth through logic, as in the theory of rikki, is a form of disrespect for the gods and is beyond the scope of human knowledge. Fujiya Goketsu criticized Norinaga's theology on the grounds that the words of waka poems and myths should be understood as scriptures rather than facts, because they are different from everyday language, which is imbued with the spiritual power of Kotodama, and therefore seem to refer to one thing but refer to another He was also criticized for his theology by Moribe Tachibana and Harumi Murata. From the time of Norinaga onward, each individual in the field of Kokugaku specialized in his or her own field of study. Nobutomo Ban, Motoori Ōhira, and Motoori Haruniwa inherited the linguistic and philological aspects of Norinaga. On the other hand, Hirata Atsutane, who became a disciple of Nobunaga, Norinaga as a "posthumous student" of Norinaga, focused mainly on the aspects of the old ways and theology.

Restoration Shinto and Late Mito Studies

In the late Edo period (1603–1868), society began to undergo major changes, such as the repeated attacks by foreign ships, and a new Shinto philosophy was born in the midst of these social conditions. In the 18th century and prior to that, "Shinto had moved away from its roots as a cult of nature worship to become intertwined with Buddhism and Confucianism." In the 1730, Kada no Azumamaro, Kada Azumamaro, Kamo no Mabuchi, Kamo Mabuchi, and their followers wanted to create a new Shinto that restored what they saw as traditional, indigenous Japanese practices and "ancient rites". Hirata Atsutane, who met Honcho Motoi in a dream and called himself a "posthumous student," wrote major works such as "Shinbashira of the Spirit," "Koshiden," and "Honkyo Gaiben," and developed a new philosophy called "Restoration Shinto" while critically inheriting the theology of Motoori Norinaga. His philosophy emphasized the afterlife, declaring that "the first thing to solidify the Yamato spirit is to know the whereabouts of the spirit," and that the present world was "a temporary world in which Ōkuninushi, Okuninushi keeps people alive to determine their good and evil. Atsutane believed that the universe is composed of three elements: heaven, earth, and Hades. He rejected the Shinto theory that "when a person dies, he goes to Yomi, Hades," and claimed that when a person dies, his spirit goes to the "underworld" presided over by Okuninushi God in "earth," where he is judged by Okuninushi God for his deeds before his death. The Underworld is the world of the Emperor of Japan under the Kotoamatsukami, Sanka-Shinka, the presiding deity of the world, relative to the Kenmei-Kai, which is ruled by the Emperor of Japan, and is presided over by the Okuninushi. This theorized the ancient Japanese view of the spirit, and became the theoretical basis for the Shinto funeral ritual. He also argued that all national myths, ranging from

, Hindu mythology, Indian mythology, and even Bible, Christian mythology by Adam and Eve, are "accents" of Japanese mythology, representing the same facts in different words. It is believed that Christianity has greatly influenced him in terms of his presiding deity character and judgment after death. Although Atsutane severely criticized Buddhism in his "Deeding Laughing Words" and other works, he also criticized Confucianism in his "Gyokusuki" for "not knowing the ancient ways and only listening to Chinese theories," but he affirmed the ethics of Confucianism itself. In contrast to Norinaga, who mainly criticized Confucianism in his theory of ancient ways, Atsutane's main enemy was Buddhism rather than Confucianism, as he manifested the religious nature of national studies. Thus, Hirata Atsutane departed from the positivistic research of Norinaga and presented a Shinto theory that contained many religious elements. For this reason, he was criticized by Motoori Ōhira, Ban Nobutomo, and other contemporary scholars of Japanese studies under Suzuya. On the other hand, the theology of Hirata Atsutane was handed down to many of his students, and Hirata school Kokugaku scholars such as Okuni Takamasa, Yano Gendo, Maruyama Sakuraku, Gonda Naosuke, and Fukuha Mishizei were responsible for the restoration of the monarchy and the formation of Shinto policies in the early Meiji period. Aizawa Seishisai Portrait Ibaraki Prefectural Museum of History

Aizawa Seishisai Portrait Ibaraki Prefectural Museum of History

In addition, there was another force that began to emerge at the end of the Edo period: Late Mito Studies. To begin with, Mito-gaku is an academic discipline that originated in the

Mito Domain was a Japanese domain of the Edo period. It was associated with Hitachi Province in modern-day Ibaraki Prefecture. He then integrated the Confucian ethics of "loyalty" and "filial piety" by explaining that since people's ancestors had served the emperor as his vassals for generations, when they served the emperor in the same way, they were carrying on the work of their ancestors and realizing "filial piety" toward their ancestors. He also explained that the ritual to confirm the unity of the emperor and the people was the Dai-namesai. Furthermore, Shoshisai incorporated Confucianism into his interpretation of Shinto mythology. He claimed that the "Divine Decree of the Immortality of Heaven and Earth," which is found in the "Nihon Shoki" (Chronicles of Japan), in which Amaterasu ordered Qioniongine to rule the country from generation to generation by the descendants of the Heavenly Founder, was the beginning of the "loyalty of sovereign and vassal," and that the "Divine Decree of the Preservation of the Treasure Mirror," in which the Yatagami mirror was ordered to be enshrined as the divine body, was the beginning of the "filial piety of parents and children," which is one of the five principles of Shinto. He believed that this was proof that humanity had been established in Japan since ancient times, and he linked Shinto with Confucianism. The late Mito school became the nursery ground for the ideas of Yoshida Shōin and other leading figures at the end of the Edo period.

Empire and Showa periods

Restoration of the Monarchy and the Divine and Buddhist Decrees

In 1867 (the third year of Keiō), the Great Decree of the Restoration of the Monarchy was issued. This was drafted by the Kokugaku scholar Tamamatsu Misao, who was a brainchild of Iwakura Tomomi, and it set forth the philosophy of "the founding of the Jinmu". The government first emphasized Shinto with the goal of unity of ritual and government and pro-emperor government, and revived the Shingi Kan to be an organization along with the Grand Council of State. The position of "missionary" was assigned to the Shinto priest, and based on the Daikyo Declaration, the Shinto religion was propagated. In addition, on March 28 of the following year, the Shinbutsu bunri, Shinbutsu bunri ordinance was issued, ordering priests who had been involved in shrine rituals in the form of Bettō and shrine priests to return to the priesthood and become priests, the abolition of Buddhist deity titles such as Mahabodhisattva and Gongen, and the transfer of Buddhist objects such as Buddhist statues and pagodas within the shrine to other temples. However, lower-ranking officials of the Meiji government who were influenced by the Hirata School of Kokugaku, which had a strong anti-Buddhist ideology, as well as Shinto priests and some people who had antipathy toward the temples that had been dominant under the temple-contractor system in the Edo period, expanded the interpretation of the decree to include radical Haibutsu kishaku, Abandonment of Buddhism On June 22, the Meiji government issued the "Notice that the Separation of Buddhism and Shinto is not the Abolition of Buddhism", calling for a halt to the Abolition of Buddhism, and in 1871 (the fourth year of the Meiji (era), Meiji), it enacted the "Important Cultural Property (Japan), Important Cultural Property", and the Abolition of Buddhism began to subside. Shugendo and Onmyodo were also abolished, and with the abolition of Onmyoryo in 1870, Onmyoji became a private religious figure, and Shugendo was abolished in 1872, and Shugendo became a private religious figure or belonged to either the Shingon or Tendai sects In addition, the Modern system of ranked Shinto shrines was introduced, referring to the ancient system of shrine rankings, and each shrine was officially ranked. The governmental shrines were divided into two groups: governmental shrines, which were given official status, and other shrines. Ise Jingu Shrine was placed at the top of these three ranks of shrines. As for the various shrines, they were divided into prefectural and prefectural shrines, which were to be respected by the residents of the prefectures, township and village shrines, which were to be respected by the residents of the villages, and unranked shrines, which did not fall under any of these categories, and each was placed under the jurisdiction of the local commissioner. The development of the ritual system also progressed, and in 1875, the Shikibu Roudatsu "Shrine Rituals" was established, unifying the rituals of shrines throughout Japan for the first time. Under this law, the number of visitors and the ceremonial order of each shrine festival were determined, and the order of the opening of the doors, offering of food, offering of money, performance of congratulatory prayers, worship of sacrificial offerings, withdrawal of money, withdrawal of food, and closing of the doors were finalized. In 1907 (40th year of Meiji), the Ministry of Home Affairs issued the "Etiquette for Shrine Rituals and Events" to unify the etiquette of each shrine ritual. In addition, in 1914, the Imperial Ordinance No. 9, "Order on Rituals at Shrines under Government National Shrines," was promulgated, and shrine festivals were divided into three categories: Grand Festivals (Prayer Year Festival, New Year's Festival, Regular Festivals, Relocation Festival, and Temporary Offering Festival), Medium Festivals (New Year's Day Festival, New Year's Festival, New Year's Day Festival, Emperor's Day Festival, Meiji Day Festival, and other festivals with a special history at the shrine), and Small Festivals (other). In addition, as a detailed regulation, the "Rituals of Shrines under the Government National Shrine" was established. The "Imperial Household Ritual Order" and its supplementary formulas were established for the Imperial Household Rituals, and the "Jingu Ritual Order" and "Jingu Meiji Rituals" were established for the Jingu Rituals. The Emperor's accession to the throne, accession rituals, the First Rice Festival, and the Rite of the Crown Prince were determined by the Tengoku Order and the Rite of the Crown Prince.

Formation and Development of State Shinto

In 1871 (the fourth year of the Meiji (era), Meiji), a notice in the Grand Council of State Proclamation No. 234 defined shrines as "state religious services. Based on this, the way of shrines and Shinto in the pre-modern era was drastically changed, and a system in which shrines were controlled by the state, the so-called

, was formed. At the beginning of the Meiji Restoration, the Hirata school of Kokugakusha was at the centre of the government, and the unity of ritual and politics and the nationalization of Shinto were promoted, but Ito Hirobumi, Iwakura Tomomi, and other important government officials of the open-minded faction began to aim for separation of church and state, and Tamamatsu Misao left the government in 1870 (Meiji 3) in conflict with Iwakura. In the following year (1871), Yano Gendo, Gonda Naosuke, Tsunoda Tadayuki, Maruyama Sakuraku and other Shintoists of the unity of ritual and government were arrested and expelled simultaneously in connection with the Two Lords Incident. In 1875, the freedom of religion was guaranteed, and in 1882, the Ministry of Home Affairs issued a notice defining shrines as non-religious. This was a change from the original policy of aiming for a government based on Shinto with unity of ritual and government, and the theory of non-religion of shrines was adopted. The Meiji Constitution enacted in 1890 (Meiji 23) also did not include any mention of Shinto. After the abolition of the hereditary system of the Shinto priesthood, which was regarded as a "state religion," on the grounds that it should not be occupied by a single family, the state trained the priesthood and decided on their appointment, in the same way as officials (civil service). Since Shinto shrines were considered non-religious, the Shinto priests of the official national shrines were prohibited from engaging in religious activities, including involvement in Shinto funeral rites and the propagation of Shinto doctrine. For this reason, the shrine Shinto that existed before the early modern period, such as Yoshida Shinto and Ise Shinto, also disappeared as a force. In 1871 (Meiji 4), the "Shinto shrine territory decree" was promulgated, which collects all the land of shrines and temples except the precincts. In 1871, the

was downgraded to the Ministry of Divinities, a ministry of the Grand Council of State, and in 1872 (1872), the shrine administration was integrated into the Ministry of Religion (Japan), Ministry of Religion, which had jurisdiction over religious administration in general. The Ministry of Religion (Japan), Ministry of Religion introduced a system of teaching positions to inculcate a spirit of patriotism and respect for the emperor among the people through the joint efforts of Shinto priests and Buddhist monks called Kyodo Shoku, but this system was quickly dismantled due to opposition from both the Shinto and Buddhist sides. Only the "Sanjo Kyoshoku," which outlined the teachings of patriotism and respect for the Emperor, was allowed to be propagated in the teaching position, and the spread of Shinto and Buddhist teachings and doctrines was prohibited. After the dissolution of the Ministry of Religion (Japan), Ministry of Religion, the Shinto priests and others established the Bureau of Shinto Affairs to continue their activities. A controversy arose over the establishment of the Bureau of Shinto Affairs over whether or not Ōkuninushi, Okuninushi should be added to the temple. In 1890, Kokugakuin University, Kokugakuin, an educational institution established in the Office of Japanese Classics Research, later developed into Kokugakuin University, a Shinto university. On the other hand, Kogakukan, which was also established in 1882 within the shrine's Hayashizaki Library by order of the Jingu priest, later became another Shinto university, Kogakukan University. In 1877, the status of Shinto priests was changed to that of non-officials, and in 1879, public spending on Shinto shrines was cut off. The payment of salaries from public funds to the Shinto priests had already been discontinued in 1873. In 1887, the government introduced a system of public funds for the preservation of government-owned shrines, and it was decided that public funds would be paid for the next 10 years, but after that, public funds would no longer be paid. As mentioned above, in 1871, the "Shrine and Temple Supremacy Decree" was issued, which caused economic damage to shrines and temples. As a result, Shinto shrines suffered more economic damage than temples, which were expected to generate income from funerals and religious activities、and shrines were placed in a very difficult economic position throughout the Meiji period. In the Meiji era, there were also Yasukuni Shrine to enshrine those who died in the service of the nation, Minatogawa Shrine to enshrine Kusunoki Masashige of the Southern Dynasty, Prince Moriyoshi of the Southern Dynasty, Kamakura-gū, and Kikuchi Taketoki, and many other shrines have been built to enshrine people who have contributed to the nation. On the other hand, the Meiji government enshrined a large number of shrines. The number of shrines decreased from 190,000 to about 130,000 as a result of the reorganization of local shrines and unranked shrines that were closely connected to the community. This was opposed by naturalist Minakata Kumagusu and folklorist Kunio Yanagita.

Deity Revival Movement

While the Shinto shrines were being cut off from public spending, the Shinto priests organized the National Shinto Priests' Association and launched a movement called the Shinto Priests' Restoration Movement, which demanded that the government restore the Shinto priests, arguing that the government should be responsible for providing a budget for the state's religious services. As a result, in 1894, the "Law Concerning the Shinto Priests of Prefectures and Subordinate Shrines" was issued, and the Shinto priests of prefectures and subordinate shrines were given the status of officials who were appointed by the local commissioner. In 1896, the House of Representatives passed the "Resolution on the Restoration of the Ministry of Divine Worship", but the restoration of the Ministry of Divine Worship itself was not realized. However, in 1900, the Ministry of the Interior's Bureau of Shrines and Temples was separated into the Bureau of Shrines and the Bureau of Religious Affairs, and a clear administrative distinction was made between Shinto and other religions. In 1906, the system of preservation money for government shrines and shrines was abolished, and government shrines and shrines were to be paid from the national treasury on a regular basis. Rentaro_mizuno1932

However, the amount of money to be paid to the shrine was to be kept within the framework of the existing preservation money system, and at the prices of the time, the annual payment was only 210,000 yen, which was about one-tenth of the expenses required to run a shrine of the size of a government-run shrine. In addition, the local government's offering of shibubaku-ryo, which was stipulated for shrines below the prefectural level, was "acceptable" and not mandatory. This did not result in a significant economic gain for the shrine. Furthermore, the administration of Shinto shrines by the Shrine Bureau of the Ministry of Home Affairs was also extremely passive. The Ministry of the Interior's Bureau of Shrine Administration was also extremely passive in its administration of Shinto shrines. The Bureau strongly emphasized the precept that "Shinto is a non-religion," and worked to prohibit the expression of Shinto's own religious ideas, while it vigorously restrained the religious activities of Shinto priests, such as funeral rites and missionary activities. He also worked to suppress the debate between Shinto and other religions, arguing that all foreign religions were assimilated into the national spirit and therefore should not be challenged. Based on the above circumstances, Shintoist Chinhiko Ashiizu commented that the main task of the Bureau of Shinto Affairs was to ensure that Shinto was de-ideologized, that the spirit of Shinto was reduced to a vacuum, that the expression of Shinto's original thought was abandoned, and that a compromise with Buddhism, Christianity, and all other legitimate religions was painstakingly made so that the state Shinto system could exist without contradicting the separation of church and state. The Shinto bureau itself was treated as a third-class bureau within the Ministry of Home Affairs, and the bureau chiefs were considered to be waiting for their posts before becoming regional prefectural governors or directors of influential bureaus. In 1940, the Shrine Bureau was reorganized into the Shinto Academy, but it was dismantled due to the defeat of the war without effective policies being implemented.

Sectarian Shinto and Zaino-no Shinto Thought

In this way, the state Shinto system, which abandoned the expression of Shinto thought and created a vacuum of Shinto spirit, was condemned by the local Shinto priests and Shinto thinkers, some of whom developed their own Shinto thought or created private Shinto groups to confront it. Among those groups, the thirteen schools of Sect Shinto were particularly powerful. These thirteen groups generally include Kurozumikyō Shinto Shusei Jingu-kyo Izumo-taishakyo Fuso-kyo Jikkō kyō Shinshu-kyo Mitake-kyo Shinto Taikyo Shinrikyo Misogikyo Konkokyo and Tenrikyo. Originally, Jingu-kyo was also included, but later it was reorganized into Jingu-kyo, Jingu Hosaikai and withdrew from sect Shinto. These denominations began to move in the late Tokugawa period on the basis of modern Shinto thought and folk beliefs, and developed in the religious administration of the Meiji era. In 1875, the teaching position of the Ministry of Education (Imperial Japan), Ministry of Education was abolished, and as mentioned above, state Shinto came to be separated from its religious aspects based on the theory of Shinto non-religion. In 1875, the Ministry of Education (Imperial Japan), Ministry of Education was abolished, and as mentioned above, State Shinto was separated from its religious aspects based on the Secular Shrine Theory. In particular, Tenrikyo grew rapidly from the mid-Meiji period and became the denomination with the largest number of followers among the denominational Shinto sects. Tenrikyo began when Miki Nakayama, the founder of Tenrikyo, received a divine blessing in 1838. Miki wrote down the words of God, "Tenri-Oh," which she received through the divine blessing, in a waka-style text called the Ofudesaki, and formed the doctrine. The content of the book is to preach a "joyous life" and emphasize the relationship between husband and wife, and not to emphasize the belief in the house or ancestral spirits. In the creation myth, the Tsukihi Oyasama taught Izanagi, a fish with a human face, and Izanami, a snake, in the muddy sea how to marry, and as a result, humans were born. Nao_Deguchi

Also important is the emergence of Oomoto, Omoto. Oomoto originated in the year 1892, when Oyasama Nao Deguchi began to speak the words of the Konjin of the Gonon and also began to record the words by his penmanship. Two years later, Onisaburo Deguchi adopted Nao as his son-in-law, and they began to work together. The Oomoto system was established by combining the writing of Ko's pen and the spiritual techniques of Ohnisaburo. Since Kazusaburo Asano, a student at the Naval Engineering School, joined, there has been a succession of intellectuals and military personnel who have joined, and the rapid expansion of the cult has become a social problem. The Daibon teaches the unity of God and man, that God is the creator of all things in this world, that the universal spirit of God dwells in all things in this world, that man is the spiritual head of all things created by God, that God has given him immense wisdom and power to put into practice the ideal world that God desires, and that man should understand God's heart from the bottom of his heart, receive God's power, and build the ideal world of mankind through the unity of God and man. Oomoto also had an extremely large impact on the Shinto sects of later generations, giving rise to a series of new religious movements known as "Oomon-kei" and influencing the formation of the Seicho-no-ie. As an overall characteristic of the teachings of denominational Shinto, while based on traditional Shinto beliefs, each denomination often had its own main deity and used traditional rituals such as magi nai and divination to propagate their teachings. Although Tenrikyo was recognized by the state, it was often oppressed by the state as it preached its own teachings and gained a large number of followers. Tenrikyo was attacked by the "Secret Instructions" of the Ministry of Home Affairs and was forced to change its rituals. Oomoto was also subjected to the first and second rounds of repression by the government authorities, who were alarmed by the expansion of the number of believers, and destroyed the headquarters facilities, dismantled the entire organization, and detained all the leaders. There were also a number of Shinto thinkers who, unlike Shinto denominations and other Shinto groups, were active in their own thought processes. Kawamori Bonji, a Shintoist, criticized the Ministry of the Interior's Shinto policy and argued for the restoration of the Shinto spirit centered on misogi (purification). Influenced by Kawamori, Imaizumi Sadasuke, while conducting empirical research on Shinto since the time of Norinaga, was initiated into Kawamori, learned religious practices, and expressed his own Shinto philosophy. The idea is that God and human beings are essentially one, and that the truth of the universe is to purify the body and soul through purification, and to manifest the direct spiritual deity, who presides over the unification, to oneself to realize the state of God-human unity. Imaizumi criticized the government's shrine administration and the military's war policy, and gave lectures to politicians urging them to stop the war,、which led to his writings and lecture recordings being banned during the war.

Shinto Directive and Postwar Shinto

After Japan surrendered at the end of World War II in 1945, the GHQ issued a Shinto directive during the occupation policy and dismantled the state Shinto system.Shinto was declared the root of nationalistic ideology by the GHQ, and in February 1946, all laws related to the administration of Shinto shrines since the Meiji era were abolished. In accordance with the provisions of the Religious Corporation Ordinance enacted in December 1945, Shinto shrines are to be treated as religious corporations in the same way as other religions, and the modern corporate personality system has been abolished. After the lifting of the occupation, the Religious Corporation Order was abolished and the Religious Corporation Law was enacted in 1951. This law set stricter standards for the recognition of religious corporations than the previous Religious Corporation Decree, and shrines throughout Japan became religious corporations in accordance with this law. In January 1946, the Institute of Divinities, the Office of Japanese Classics Research, the National Association of Shinto Priests and the Jingūkyō were dissolved and the

was formed as a shrine organization to encompass all shrines in Japan that were to remain as religious corporations. Meijijingu-2

Although the shrines lost their official status, their economic prosperity surpassed that of the prewar period due to the implementation of Shinto funeral rites, which had been prohibited before the war, and the flourishing of various types of prayers. As the Japanese economic miracle, Japanese economy improved due to high economic growth, shrines were also upgraded and expanded beyond pre-war levels. On the other hand, as urbanization progressed due to economic growth, problems such as a decrease in the number of Ujiko (shrine parishioners) and a shortage of successors to the Shinto priests became apparent due to the depopulation of rural areas. Urban shrines have also begun to face problems such as the mobility of the Ujiko population, the deterioration of the shrine environment due to urban development, and the increase in the number of nominal Ujiko.

Contemporary Shinto

In the Heisei era (1989–2019), the power spot boom started in the 2000s, and the red seal collecting boom started in the 2010s, resulting in an increase in the number of people visiting shrines. According to a survey conducted by the Jinja Honcho in 2015, only 2% of shrines have an annual income of more than 100 million yen, while about 60% of shrines have an annual income of less than 3 million yen. The number of shrines with an annual income of less than 3 million yen was about 60%. The number of shrines has decreased by about 300 in the past 10 years. For this reason, there have been a number of cases of shrines that have no choice but to rent out part of their premises to turn them into condominiums or other buildings to protect the shrine. On the other hand, there are examples of shrines that have managed to overcome their financial difficulties by making various innovations, such as creating original ema (votive picture tablet) and goshuin (red seal), organizing blind dates, and opening cafes as places of relaxation. In addition, there are shrines throughout Japan that are the target of Pop-culture tourism, pop culture pilgrimage, in which fans of anime and manga visit the stage of the work, such as Washinomiya Shrine, which has seen an increase in visitors since it became the stage for the anime "Lucky Star (manga), Lucky Star" in 2007 (Heisei 19). In modern times, shrines play a role in annual events and life rituals for individuals and families, such as Hatsumōde, Hatsumode, Miyamairi, Ogu mairi, Shichi-Go-San, and Wedding. As of 2009, the number of shrine buildings designated as national treasures totaled 27 and 30, and there are many examples of shrine rituals and ceremonies such as the Gion Festival being registered as Important Cultural Property (Japan) for rituals and ceremonies at shrines such as the Gion Festival, and many traditional performing arts such as Yabusame, Gagaku, and Kagura have been preserved. In addition, many shrines, including Meiji Shrine, which has about 100 hectares of forest and about 3,000 species of living organisms in the city, have forests within their precincts, thus playing a role in forest conservation in the city. In 2009 (Heisei 21), the Jinja Honcho participated as a representative of Shinto in the World Assembly for Peace, a gathering of diverse religious figures from around the world, and from the standpoint of Shinto, appealed for the necessity of coexistence between nature and humankind. During the COVID-19 pandemic the 2021 Hatsumode was called Saisaki-mode and had special observances for it.

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Shinto2, state=expanded History of Shinto, Shinto Pages with unreviewed translations History of religion by religion