''Sifrei Kodesh'' (), commonly referred to as ''sefarim'' (), or in its singular form, ''sefer'', are books of Jewish religious literature and are viewed by religious Jews as sacred. These are generally works of

Torah The Torah ( , "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The Torah is also known as the Pentateuch () ...

literature, i.e.

Tanakh The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. ''

Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; , from the verb ''šānā'', "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first written collection of the Jewish oral traditions that are known as the Oral Torah. Having been collected in the 3rd century CE, it is ...

Midrash ''Midrash'' (;"midrash"
. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. ; or ''midrashot' ...

(

Halakha ''Halakha'' ( ; , ), also Romanization of Hebrew, transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Judaism, Jewish religious laws that are derived from the Torah, Written and Oral Torah. ''Halakha'' is ...

Aggadah Aggadah (, or ; ; 'tales', 'legend', 'lore') is the non-legalistic exegesis which appears in the classical rabbinic literature of Judaism, particularly the Talmud and Midrash. In general, Aggadah is a compendium of rabbinic texts that incorporat ...

Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of Haskalah#Effects, modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...

, and all works of Musar,

Hasidism Hasidism () or Hasidic Judaism is a religious movement within Judaism that arose in the 18th century as a Spirituality, spiritual revival movement in contemporary Western Ukraine before spreading rapidly throughout Eastern Europe. Today, most ...

Kabbalah Kabbalah or Qabalah ( ; , ; ) is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought in Jewish mysticism. It forms the foundation of Mysticism, mystical religious interpretations within Judaism. A traditional Kabbalist is called a Mekubbal ...

, or '' machshavah'' ("Jewish Thought"). Historically, ''sifrei kodesh'' were generally written in Hebrew with some in Judeo-Aramaic or

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

, although in recent years, thousands of titles in other languages, most notably English, were published. An alternative spelling for 'sefarim' is ''seforim''.

Terms

The term ''Sifrei Kodesh'' is Hebrew for "Holy Books", and includes all books that are considered holy in

Rabbinic Judaism Rabbinic Judaism (), also called Rabbinism, Rabbinicism, Rabbanite Judaism, or Talmudic Judaism, is rooted in the many forms of Judaism that coexisted and together formed Second Temple Judaism in the land of Israel, giving birth to classical rabb ...

. This includes all Torah literature as well as Jewish prayer books. Among

Orthodox Jews Orthodox Judaism is a collective term for the traditionalist branches of contemporary Judaism. Theologically, it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah, both Written and Oral, as literally revealed by God on Mount Sinai and faithfully tr ...

the word ''sefer'' (plural ''s'farim'') is used for books of the

Tanakh The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. ''

Oral Torah According to Rabbinic Judaism, the Oral Torah or Oral Law () are statutes and legal interpretations that were not recorded in the Five Books of Moses, the Written Torah (), and which are regarded by Orthodox Judaism, Orthodox Jews as prescriptive ...

(

and

) or any work of

rabbinic literature Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, is the entire corpus of works authored by rabbis throughout Jewish history. The term typically refers to literature from the Talmudic era (70–640 CE), as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic ...

. Works unrelated to

Torah study Torah study is the study of the Torah, Hebrew Bible, Talmud, responsa, rabbinic literature, and similar works, all of which are Judaism's Sifrei kodesh, religious texts. According to Rabbinic Judaism, the study is done for the purpose of the ''mi ...

are rarely called ''sefer'' by English-speaking Orthodox Jews. Among Hebrew-speaking

Ashkenazi Jews Ashkenazi Jews ( ; also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim) form a distinct subgroup of the Jewish diaspora, that emerged in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium CE. They traditionally speak Yiddish, a language ...

, the differentiation between books related to Torah study and other books is made by referring to the former with traditional

Ashkenazi Ashkenazi Jews ( ; also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim) form a distinct subgroup of the Jewish diaspora, that Ethnogenesis, emerged in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium Common era, CE. They traditionally spe ...

pronunciation (SEY-fur) and to the latter with

Modern Hebrew Modern Hebrew (, or ), also known as Israeli Hebrew or simply Hebrew, is the Standard language, standard form of the Hebrew language spoken today. It is the only surviving Canaanite language, as well as one of the List of languages by first w ...

pronunciation (SEF-fer). The term "Torah" has two meanings. It can refer solely to the

Five Books of Moses The Torah ( , "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Book of Genesis, Genesis, Book of Exodus, Exodus, Leviticus, Book of Numbers, Numbers and Deuteronomy. ...

. Traditionally, it is written on a parchment scroll, known as a ''

Sefer Torah file:SeferTorah.jpg, A Sephardic Torah scroll rolled to the first paragraph of the Shema file:Köln-Tora-und-Innenansicht-Synagoge-Glockengasse-040.JPG, An Ashkenazi Torah scroll rolled to the Decalogue file:Keneseth Eliyahoo Synagogue, Inte ...

'', although it is also printed in book form, known as a '' Chumash'' (and in some cases a '' tikkun''). The term "Torah" can also include the

Nevi'im The (; ) is the second major division of the Hebrew Bible (the ''Tanakh''), lying between the () and (). The Nevi'im are divided into two groups. The Former Prophets ( ) consists of the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings ...

and

Ketuvim The (; ) is the third and final section of the Hebrew Bible, after the ("instruction") and the "Prophets". In English translations of the Hebrew Bible, this section is usually titled "Writings" or "Hagiographa". In the Ketuvim, 1–2 Books ...

) and rabbinic texts, and such books are therefore sometimes also referred to as "Torah literature" (). The

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. '' Torah The Torah ( , "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The Torah is also known as the Pentateuch () ...

, the Nevi'im, and the Ketuvim. Separately, the Nevi'im and Ketuvim are also called '' Nakh''.

Commentaries

Numerous commentaries on the Tanakh have been written and published over the last thousand years. The most notable ones are ''

Targum Onkelos Interlinear text of Hebrew Numbers 6.3–10 with British_Library.html" ;"title="Aramaic Targum Onkelos from the British Library">Aramaic Targum Onkelos from the British Library. Targum Onkelos (or Onqelos; , ''Targūm ’Unqəlōs'') is t ...

'', a translation of the Torah into Judeo-Aramaic, written by Onkelos; and ''

Rashi Shlomo Yitzchaki (; ; ; 13 July 1105) was a French rabbi who authored comprehensive commentaries on the Talmud and Hebrew Bible. He is commonly known by the List of rabbis known by acronyms, Rabbinic acronym Rashi (). Born in Troyes, Rashi stud ...

'', a commentary on the entire Tanakh written by

. Both are traditionally printed in the Chumash alongside the biblical text. Other commentaries that are sometimes printed alongside the text in the Chumash are commentaries by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher and Rabbi Shabbethai Bass (the '' Siftei Chachamim''). Commentaries traditionally printed alongside the ''Nakh'' are ''Rashi'' as well as ''Metzudat David'' and ''Metzudat Zion'' by Rabbi David Altschuler. In addition to the classic printings of Tanakh which don't include many more commentaries than ''Rashi'' and ''Targum Onkelos'', there is the '' Mikraot Gedolot'' edition which was first published in the early sixteenth century. Commentaries in the ''Mikraot Gedolot'' on the Torah are generally those of Abraham ibn Ezra (''Sefer ha-Yashar''),

Nachmanides Moses ben Nachman ( ''Mōše ben-Nāḥmān'', "Moses son of Nachman"; 1194–1270), commonly known as Nachmanides (; ''Nakhmanídēs''), and also referred to by the acronym Ramban (; ) and by the contemporary nickname Bonastruc ça Porta (; l ...

, Rabbi Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz (the ''Keli Yakar''), Chaim ibn Attar, and the translation and commentary attributed to Rabbi Jonathan ben Uzziel, known as

Targum Pseudo-Jonathan Targum Pseudo-Jonathan (also known as the Jerusalem Targum, Targum Yerushalmi, or Targum Jonathan) is an Aramaic translation and interpretation (targum) of the Torah (Pentateuch) traditionally thought to have originated from the land of Israel, al ...

, all in addition to ''Rashi'' and ''Targum Onkelos''; while commentaries on ''Nakh'' are those of Rashi, Rabbi David Altschuler, Rabbi

David Kimhi ''Cervera Bible'', David Kimhi's Grammar Treatise David Kimhi (, also Kimchi or Qimḥi) (1160–1235), also known by the Hebrew acronym as the RaDaK () (Rabbi David Kimhi), was a medieval rabbi, biblical commentator, philosopher, and grammarian ...

, Rabbi Joseph Kara, and on some volumes, Rabbi Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno (the ''Sforno'' or ''Sepornu''). Among the numerous commentaries of Tanakh not published in the ''Mikraot Gedolot'' are the '' Meam Loez'', '' Malbim'', '' Ha'amek Davar'', '' Torah Temimah'', and '' The Hirsch Chumash''.

Other texts in ancient times

Aside from the Bible, there were several writings of Jewish religious significance in

ancient times Ancient history is a time period from the History of writing, beginning of writing and recorded human history through late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the development of Sumerian language, ...

, known today as " the outer books". There are some other writings however that most agree were written more recently that have been claimed to be older. These include the ''

Sefer Yetzirah ''Sefer Yetzirah'' ( ''Sēp̄er Yəṣīrā'', ''Book of Formation'', or ''Book of Creation'') is a work of Jewish mysticism. Early commentaries, such as the ''Kuzari'', treated it as a treatise on mathematical and linguistic theory, as opposed t ...

'', which some say was written by

Abraham Abraham (originally Abram) is the common Hebrews, Hebrew Patriarchs (Bible), patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father who began the Covenant (biblical), covenanta ...

; and the

Book of Enoch The Book of Enoch (also 1 Enoch; Hebrew language, Hebrew: סֵפֶר חֲנוֹךְ, ''Sēfer Ḥănōḵ''; , ) is an Second Temple Judaism, ancient Jewish Apocalyptic literature, apocalyptic religious text, ascribed by tradition to the Patriar ...

, which some say was written by

Enoch Enoch ( ; ''Henṓkh'') is a biblical figure and Patriarchs (Bible), patriarch prior to Noah's flood, and the son of Jared (biblical figure), Jared and father of Methuselah. He was of the Antediluvian period in the Hebrew Bible. The text of t ...

Works of ''Chazal''

As stated earlier, Jewish belief is that the Pentateuch is of

Mosaic authorship Mosaic authorship is the Judeo-Christian tradition that the Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, were dictated by God to Moses. The tradition probably began with the Deuteronomic Code, legalistic code of the Book of Deut ...

, meaning that it was dictated by

God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...

Moses In Abrahamic religions, Moses was the Hebrews, Hebrew prophet who led the Israelites out of slavery in the The Exodus, Exodus from ancient Egypt, Egypt. He is considered the most important Prophets in Judaism, prophet in Judaism and Samaritani ...

. Later writings, the

and

, were, according to tradition, written by Jewish prophets. For over a thousand years, these books, known as ''Tanakh'', were more or less the sole writings of Judaism. However, there was much material that was not written down, and instead memorized. Known as the

, it includes over five hundreds laws learned out from Talmudical hermeneutics as well as the laws given to Moses at Sinai (). However, circa 200 C.E., much of the Oral Torah was written down, and is known as the

(the

Zohar The ''Zohar'' (, ''Zōhar'', lit. "Splendor" or "Radiance") is a foundational work of Kabbalistic literature. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah and scriptural interpretations as well as material o ...

, a book chronicling the hidden parts of the Torah, was written down as well around this time by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai). Three hundred years later the

was written, expounding on the Mishnah.

Mishnah

For generations, the

had been transmitted by word of mouth, largely with the help of the

Sanhedrin The Sanhedrin (Hebrew and Middle Aramaic , a loanword from , 'assembly,' 'sitting together,' hence ' assembly' or 'council') was a Jewish legislative and judicial assembly of either 23 or 70 elders, existing at both a local and central level i ...

, the leading Jewish authority. However, after the destruction of the Second Temple, the Sanhedrin had been uprooted and much of the Oral Torah was being forgotten. Therefore, c. 188 CE, Rabbi

Judah ha-Nasi Judah ha-Nasi (, ''Yəhūḏā hanNāsīʾ‎''; Yehudah HaNasi or Judah the Prince or Judah the President) or Judah I, known simply as Rebbi or Rabbi, was a second-century rabbi (a tanna of the fifth generation) and chief redactor and editor of ...

, head of the exiled Sanhedrin, compiled the

, i.e. the teachings of the Oral Torah. Since the

Maccabean Revolt The Maccabean Revolt () was a Jewish rebellion led by the Maccabees against the Seleucid Empire and against Hellenistic influence on Jewish life. The main phase of the revolt lasted from 167 to 160 BCE and ended with the Seleucids in control of ...

however, much had already been lost, which led to many disagreements among the scholars, the ''

Tannaim ''Tannaim'' ( Amoraic Hebrew: תנאים "repeaters", "teachers", singular ''tanna'' , borrowed from Aramaic) were the rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 10–220 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also refe ...

''. Therefore, the Mishnah includes their differing opinions. As

Maimonides Moses ben Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (, ) and also referred to by the Hebrew acronym Rambam (), was a Sephardic rabbi and Jewish philosophy, philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah schola ...

wrote in the introduction to his ''

Mishneh Torah The ''Mishneh Torah'' (), also known as ''Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka'' (), is a code of Rabbinic Jewish religious law (''halakha'') authored by Maimonides (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon/Rambam). The ''Mishneh Torah'' was compiled between 1170 and 1180 CE ( ...

'': A similar project was carried out by Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba and his student Rabbi Hoshaiah, known as the

Tosefta The Tosefta ( "supplement, addition") is a compilation of Jewish Oral Law from the late second century, the period of the Mishnah and the Jewish sages known as the '' Tannaim''. Background Jewish teachings of the Tannaitic period were cha ...

. A collection of statements not included in the Mishnah was compiled by Rabbi Oshiya and Bar Kappara, known as

Baraitot ''Baraita'' ( "external" or "outside"; pl. ''bārayāṯā'' or in Hebrew ''baraitot''; also baraitha, beraita; Ashkenazi pronunciation: berayse) designates a tradition in the Oral Torah of Rabbinical Judaism that is not incorporated in the Mi ...

Talmud

Circa 349, the Sanhedrin, exiled from Jerusalem and sitting in

Tiberias Tiberias ( ; , ; ) is a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee in northern Israel. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's Four Holy Cities, along with Jerusalem, Heb ...

, wrote the

Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud (, often for short) or Palestinian Talmud, also known as the Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century Jewish oral tradition known as the Mishnah. Naming this version of the Talm ...

, a mammoth work compiling the teachings of the rabbis of the recent generations, known as ''

Amoraim ''Amoraim'' ( , singular ''Amora'' ; "those who say" or "those who speak over the people", or "spokesmen") refers to Jewish scholars of the period from about 200 to 500 CE, who "said" or "told over" the teachings of the Oral Torah. They were p ...

'', as they expounded on the Mishnah. It is largely attributed to Rabbi Yochanan. However, the Jerusalem Talmud is generally overshadowed by the

Babylonian Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the centerpiece of Jewi ...

, a similar yet much larger work, compiling the teachings of the ''Amoraim'', and completed in Babylonia circa 500. The teachings were largely legalistic in nature, stating ''

halakha ''Halakha'' ( ; , ), also Romanization of Hebrew, transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Judaism, Jewish religious laws that are derived from the Torah, Written and Oral Torah. ''Halakha'' is ...

''. There were other teachings, known as

aggadah Aggadah (, or ; ; 'tales', 'legend', 'lore') is the non-legalistic exegesis which appears in the classical rabbinic literature of Judaism, particularly the Talmud and Midrash. In general, Aggadah is a compendium of rabbinic texts that incorporat ...

, which incorporates narratives, parables, practical advice, remedies, and insights. The Babylonian Talmud, attributed to

Rav Ashi Rav Ashi () ("Rabbi Ashi") (352–427) was a Babylonian Jewish rabbi, of the sixth generation of amoraim. He reestablished the Academy at Sura and was the first editor of the Babylonian Talmud. The original pronunciation of his name may h ...

and Ravina, was first printed in 1483 by Joshua Solomon Soncino. Soncino's layout of the Talmud, with the original Talmud text in the center of the page, with the commentary of Rashi on the outer margins and the commentary of

Tosafot The Tosafot, Tosafos or Tosfot () are Middle Ages, medieval commentaries on the Talmud. They take the form of critical and explanatory glosses, printed, in almost all Talmud editions, on the outer margin and opposite Rashi's notes. The authors o ...

on the inner ones, was later imitated by Christian printer Daniel Bomberg, who printed the entire Talmud between the years 1519 and 1523, and by all subsequent major printings of the Talmud. Rabbi Moshe Shapiro, rabbi of Slavuta, Ukraine and owner of a printing press, published the Slavita Shas in the early 1800s. In 1886, the

Romm Publishing House The Romm publishing house was a publisher of Jewish religious literature from 1788 to 1940. It is known for its 1886 Vilna Shas, which still serves as a definitive edition. Baruch ben Yosef Romm founded the business originally in Grodno and it co ...

Vilnius Vilnius ( , ) is the capital of and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, most-populous city in the Baltic states. The city's estimated January 2025 population w ...

published the Vilna Shas, which has since been reprinted and remains the classic print of the Talmud. In the past years, there have been numerous commentaries written on the Talmud. While the most commonly referenced commentaries are those of Rashi and Tosafot, and as mentioned, are printed in the margins of the Talmud, other famous commentaries (which often are recognized as Halakhic works as well) include the '' Piskei HaRosh'', '' Shitah Mekubetzet'', '' Maharsha'' (the ''Piskei Halachot'' and ''Piskei Aggadot''), the '' Pnei Yehoshua'', the '' Mordechai'', the '' Chiddushia HaRitva'', the '' Meiri'', the Maharshal's ''Chochmas Shlomo'' and ''Yam Shel Shlomo'', the '' Meir Einei Chachmamim'', the '' Kehillos Yaakov'', the '' Shaarei Yosher'', and the '' Birkat Shmuel'', as well as many published '' shiurim'' (classes) given on the Talmud, including those of Rabbi Nochum Partzovitz (''Chiddushei Reb Nochum'' and ''Shiurei Reb Nochum''), Rabbi Shmuel Rozovsky (''Shiurei Reb Shmuel'' and ''Chiddushei Reb Shmuel''), Rabbi Reuven Grozovsky (''Chiddushei Rev Reuven''), Rabbi Elchonon Wasserman (''Kovetz Shiurim'' and ''Kovetz He'aros''), Rabbi

Chaim Soloveitchik Chaim (Halevi) Soloveitchik (Yiddish: חיים סאָלאָווייטשיק, ), also known as Chaim Brisker (1853 – 30 July 1918), was a rabbi and Talmudic scholar credited as the founder of the Brisker method of Talmudic study within Judaism ...

(''Chiddushei HaGrach al HaShas''), Rabbi

Naftoli Trop Rabbi Naftoli Trop (April 1871 - September 24, 1928) was a renowned Talmudist and Talmid Chacham. He served as ''rosh yeshiva'' of Raduń Yeshiva, Yeshiva Chofetz Chaim in Radun, Belarus, Radun, Second Polish Republic, Poland. Early years In his ...

(''Chiddushei HaGranat''), and Rabbi Aryeh Leib Malin (''Chiddushei Reb Aryeh Leib'').

Kabbalah

The term

refers to the "hidden parts of the Torah," often described as "Jewish

metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of ...

." Kabbalistic works show how every physical thing is a metaphor for a spiritual concept. The primary Kabbalistic work, the Zohar, was written by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, a Tanna who lived in the second century, although it was lost for many years. However, it was discovered in Spain in the thirteenth century and transcribed by hand numerous times, leading to changes between the texts. Between 1558 and 1560, it was printed in

Mantua Mantua ( ; ; Lombard language, Lombard and ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Italian region of Lombardy, and capital of the Province of Mantua, eponymous province. In 2016, Mantua was designated as the "Italian Capital of Culture". In 2 ...

based on ten different manuscripts in order to glean the correct text. A separate printing took place in

Cremona Cremona ( , , ; ; ) is a city and (municipality) in northern Italy, situated in Lombardy, on the left bank of the Po (river), Po river in the middle of the Po Valley. It is the capital of the province of Cremona and the seat of the local city a ...

around the same time, using only six manuscripts, leading to differences in the two printings. The Zohar was largely expounded on by Rabbi Yitzchak Luria (known as the Arizal) and his teachings were summarized in the book '' Etz Chaim'' by his chief student, Rabbi Chaim Vital.

''Halakha''

Jewish law, known in Hebrew as ''

'', was transcribed first in the Mishnah and later in the Talmud, with the differing opinions spread out over sixty three tractates. However, later rabbis — namely the

Geonim ''Geonim'' (; ; also Romanization of Hebrew, transliterated Gaonim, singular Gaon) were the presidents of the two great Talmudic Academies in Babylonia, Babylonian Talmudic Academies of Sura Academy , Sura and Pumbedita Academy , Pumbedita, in t ...

of the

Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages (historiography), Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th to the 10th century. They marked the start o ...

, the

Rishonim ''Rishonim'' (; ; sing. , ''Rishon'') were the leading rabbis and ''posek, poskim'' who lived approximately during the 11th to 15th centuries, in the era before the writing of the ''Shulchan Aruch'' (, "Set Table", a common printed code of Jewis ...

of the High and

Late Middle Ages The late Middle Ages or late medieval period was the Periodization, period of History of Europe, European history lasting from 1300 to 1500 AD. The late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period ( ...

, and the

Acharonim In Halakha, Jewish law and history, ''Acharonim'' (, , ; ; ) are the leading rabbis and Posek, poskim (Jewish legal decisors) living from roughly the 16th century to the present, and more specifically since the writing of the ''Shulchan Aruch'' ...

of modern times — wrote more conclusive works. Many of these works are

responsa ''Responsa'' (plural of Latin , 'answer') comprise a body of written decisions and rulings given by legal scholars in response to questions addressed to them. In the modern era, the term is used to describe decisions and rulings made by scholars i ...

(''she'eilot u'teshuvot'' in Hebrew), printed questions and answers. The Geonim, the leaders of Jewry in the

primarily in

Babylonia Babylonia (; , ) was an Ancient history, ancient Akkadian language, Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Kuwait, Syria and Iran). It emerged as a ...

, were not prolific writers like later generations. However, among their few writings is the famed '' Sheiltot de-Rav Ahai'' written by Rabbi Achai Gaon. The

, the leading rabbis of the Middle Ages after the Geonim, have left many written Halakhic works, including the ''Piskei HaRosh'' of Rabbi Asher ben Yechiel and the ''Sefer HaHalakhot'' of Rabbi Yitzchak Alfasi, both of which are often published in the back of the Talmud; and the ''

Arba'ah Turim ''Arba'ah Turim'' (), often called simply the ''Tur'', is an important Halakha#Codes of Jewish law, Halakhic code composed by Yaakov ben Asher (Cologne, 1270 – Toledo, Spain c. 1340, also referred to as ''Ba'al Ha-Turim''). The four-part stru ...

'', also known as the ''Tur'', of Rabbi Yaakov ben Asher, a four volume work written in attempt to organize Jewish law.

Rambam

Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, known as Maimonides or as the Rambam, was a Rishon who lived in Spain, Morocco, and Egypt in the second half of the twelfth century. The author of several books, his most famous is a halakhic work, ''

'', also known as the ''Yad HaChazakah'' or simply as the ''Rambam'', which is fourteen volumes long. Although when it was first written, ''Mishne Torah'' received much backlash from contemporary Jewish leaders, it soon became recognized by world Jewry as authentic Torah literature, with many commentaries written on it, including the '' Ohr Somayach'', '' Tzofnath Paneach'' and the writings of the Soloveitchik dynasty, including '' Chiddushei Rabbeinu Chaim'' by Rabbi

; works by his sons, ''Chiddushei HaGram HaLevi'' of Rabbi Moshe Soloveitchik and ''Chiddushei Maran Ryz HaLevi'' of Rabbi Yitzchak Zev Soloveitchik; and by his grandson Rabbi

Meshulam Dovid Soloveitchik Meshulam Dovid Soloveitchik ( also known as Reb Dovid or Rav Dovid; 21 October 1921 – 31 January 2021) was a Haredi Judaism, Haredi rabbi and rosh yeshiva of one of the branches of the Brisk tradition and Soloveitchik dynasty, Brisk yeshivas in ...

, titled '' Chiddushei Rabbeinu Meshulam Dovid Halevi''. A student of Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik, Rabbi Isser Zalman Meltzer wrote his own commentary on the Rambam, titled ''Even HaEzel''.

Halakhic works of Acharonim

Likely the most monumental Halakhic work ever written, Rabbi Yoseph Karo completed the ''

Shulchan Aruch The ''Shulhan Arukh'' ( ),, often called "the Code of Jewish Law", is the most widely consulted of the various legal codes in Rabbinic Judaism. It was authored in the city of Safed in what is now Israel by Joseph Karo in 1563 and published in ...

'' (or ''Code of Jewish Law'', sometimes shortened to ''Codes'') in 1565 in

Safed Safed (), also known as Tzfat (), is a city in the Northern District (Israel), Northern District of Israel. Located at an elevation of up to , Safed is the highest city in the Galilee and in Israel. Safed has been identified with (), a fortif ...

. It was a condensation of his previous Halakhic work, ''

Beit Yosef Beit may refer to: *Beit (surname) *Beit baronets *Bet (letter), a letter of the Semitic abjad *A component of Glossary of Arabic toponyms, Arabic placenames and Glossary of Hebrew toponyms, Hebrew placenames, literally meaning 'house' *''Masada: Be ...

'', which was written as commentary on the ''Arba'ah Turim''. Like the ''Tur'', it was divided into four sections: ''

Orach Chayim ''Orach Chayim'' ("manner/way of life") is a section of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher's compilation of Halakha (Jewish law), '' Arba'ah Turim''. This section addresses aspects of Jewish law pertinent to the Hebrew calendar (be it the daily, weekly, mo ...

'', ''

Yoreh De'ah ''Yoreh De'ah'' () is a section of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher's compilation of halakha (Jewish law), the ''Arba'ah Turim'', written around 1300. This section treats all aspects of Jewish law not pertinent to the Hebrew calendar, finance, torts, marr ...

'', ''

Even Ha'ezer ( "The Stone of Help" or "The Rock of the ") is a section of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher's compilation of halakha (Jewish law), ''Arba'ah Turim''. This section treats aspects of Jewish law related to marriage, divorce, and sexual conduct. Later, Rabb ...

'', and '' Choshen Mishpat''. The ''Mapah'', a commentary on ''Shulchan Aruch'' by Rabbi Moshe Isserles (the Rema) is generally printed together with the ''Shulchan Aruch'' in the center of the page, albeit in a different font, with the commentaries of ''Turei Zahav'' of Rabbi

David HaLevi Segal David ha-Levi Segal (c. 1586 – 20 February 1667), also known as the Turei Zahav (abbreviated Taz []) after the title of his significant ''halakha, halakhic'' commentary on the ''Shulchan Aruch'', was one of the greatest Jews of Poland, Polish ...

and ''Magen Avraham'' of Rabbi Avraham Gombiner or ''Siftei Kohen'' of Rabbi

Shabbatai HaKohen Shabbatai ben Meir HaKohen (; 1621–1662) was a talmudist and halakhist. He became known as the ''Shakh'' (), which is an abbreviation of his most important work, ''Siftei Kohen'' () (literally ''Lips of the Priest'') on the Shulchan Aruch. Bi ...

printed in the margins. Major commentaries written on the Shulchan Aruch include the '' Ketzos Hachoshen'', '' Avnei Milu'im'', and the '' Nesivos Hamishpat''. Many later Halakhic works were based on ''Shulchan Aruch''. These include Rabbi

Shneur Zalman of Liadi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, (; September 4, 1745 – December 15, 1812 O.S. / 18 Elul 5505 – 24 Tevet 5573) commonly known as the Alter Rebbe or Baal Hatanya, was a rabbi and the founder and first Rebbe of Chabad, a branch of Hasidic Judaism. He ...

's '' Shulchan Aruch HaRav'', Rabbi Yechiel Michel Epstein's '' Aruch HaShulchan'', Rabbi Shlomo Ganzfried's '' Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'', and Rabbi

Avraham Danzig Avraham ben Yehiel Michael Danzig (; 1748–1820) was a rabbi, ''posek'' (legal decisor) and Halakha#Codes of Jewish law, codifier, best known as the author of the works of halakha, Jewish law called ''Chayei Adam'' and ''Chochmat Adam''. He is so ...

's '' Chayei Adam'' and ''Chochmas Adam'' (only on ''Orach Chayim'' and ''Yoreh De'ah''). '' Mishnah Berurah'', a six-volume work expounding on ''Orach Chayim'', was published between 1884 and 1907 and is followed by most Litvishe Jews almost exclusively. Comparative

Sephardic Sephardic Jews, also known as Sephardi Jews or Sephardim, and rarely as Iberian Peninsular Jews, are a Jewish diaspora population associated with the historic Jewish communities of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and their descendant ...

works are '' Kaf HaChaim'' and '' Yalkut Yosef''. The ''Ben Ish Hai'', by Rabbi

Yosef Hayyim Yosef Hayim (1 September 1835 – 30 August 1909) ( Iraqi Hebrew: Yoseph Ḥayyim; ; or Yosef Chaim) was a leading Baghdadi ''hakham'' ( Sephardi rabbi), authority on ''halakha'' (Jewish law), and Master Kabbalist. He is best known as author of ...

, is based on the sermons he delivered, and therefore includes ''halakha'' as well as Kabbalah and explanations on the Torah. Many Halakhic works of the Acharonim are responsa. These include the ''Igros Moshe'' of Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, the ''Noda B'Yehudah'' of Rabbi Yechezkel Landau, ''She'eilot U'teshuvot Rabbi Akiva Eiger'' of Rabbi Akiva Eiger, ''Beis HaLevi'' by Rabbi Yosef Dov Soloveitchik, ''Shevet HaLevi'' of Rabbi Shmuel Wosner, and ''Tzitz Eliezer'' of Rabbi Eliezer Waldenberg. Another notable Halakhic work is the '' Chofetz Chaim'', dealing with the laws of proper speech, and written by Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan.

Hasidism

Also known as ''chasidus'',

is an Orthodox Jewish movement originating in Eastern Europe in the mid-eighteenth century, founded by the

Baal Shem Tov Israel ben Eliezer (According to a forged document from the "Kherson Geniza", accepted only by Chabad, he was born in October 1698. Some Hasidic traditions place his birth as early as 1690, while Simon Dubnow and other modern scholars argue f ...

. Describing Hasidic thought, Rabbi

Aryeh Kaplan Aryeh Moshe Eliyahu Kaplan (; October 23, 1934 – January 28, 1983) was an American Orthodox Judaism, Orthodox rabbi, author, and translator best known for his The Living Torah and Nach, Living Torah edition of the Torah and extensive Kabbalah, ...

writes: The first Hasidic book to be published, '' Toldot Yaakov Yosef'' by Rabbi Yaakov Yosef of Pollonye and interlaced with quotations from the Baal Shem Tov, was published in 1780. Later Hasidic works include ''Noam Elimelech'' by Rabbi Elimelech of Lizensk, ''Bnei Yissaschar'' by Rabbi Tzvi Elimelech Spira, ''Kedushat Levi'' by Rabbi Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev, and '' Tanya'' by Rabbi

Musar

While the study of musar (spiritual and

interpersonal In social psychology, an interpersonal relation (or interpersonal relationship) describes a social association, connection, or affiliation between two or more people. It overlaps significantly with the concept of social relations, which are ...

self-improvement) always existed in Jewish circles, it became more widespread with the start of Musar movement in the nineteenth century. The classic musar library of '' Shaarei Teshuvah'', '' Chovot HaLevavot'', '' Maalot HaMiddot'', '' Orchot Tzaddikim'', '' Mesillat Yesharim'', and '' Derech Hashem'' was later expanded with the writings of rabbis and mashgiachs after the Musar movement began. Later works include Rabbi Yisrael Salanter's ''Or Yisrael'', Rabbi Simcha Zissel Ziv's ''Chochmah U'Mussar'', Rabbi Yosef Yozel Horowitz's ''Madreigas HaAdam'', Rabbi Eliyahu Dessler's ''Michtav MeEliyahu'', Rabbi Yeruchom Levovitz's ''Daas Chochmah U'Mussar'' and ''Daas Torah'', Rabbi Chaim Shmuelevitz's ''Sichos Musar'', and Rabbi Shlomo Wolbe's ''Alei Shur''.

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

* * * {{Authority control Hebrew-language literature Hebrew words and phrases Orthodox Judaism