HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The Second Crusade (1147–1149) was the second major
crusade The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...
launched from Europe. The Second Crusade was started in response to the fall of the
County of Edessa The County of Edessa (Latin: ''Comitatus Edessanus'') was a 12th-century Crusader state in Upper Mesopotamia. Its seat was the city of Edessa (modern Şanlıurfa, Turkey). In the late Byzantine period, Edessa became the centre of intellec ...
in 1144 to the forces of Zengi. The county had been founded during the
First Crusade The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the Middle Ages. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Muslim conquest ...
(1096–1099) by the future King Baldwin I of Jerusalem in 1098. While it was the first Crusader state to be founded, it was also the first to fall. The Second Crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III, and was led in the east by European kings
Louis VII of France Louis VII (1120 – 18 September 1180), called the Younger or the Young () to differentiate him from his father Louis VI, was King of France from 1137 to 1180. His first marriage was to Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine, one of the wealthiest and ...
and Conrad III of Germany, with help from a number of other European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing
Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
territory into
Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
, both armies were separately defeated by the
Seljuk Turks The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljukids ( ; , ''Saljuqian'',) alternatively spelled as Saljuqids or Seljuk Turks, was an Oghuz Turks, Oghuz Turkic, Sunni Muslim dynasty that gradually became Persianate society, Persianate and contributed to Turco-Persi ...
. The main Western Christian source, Odo of Deuil, and Syriac Christian sources claim that the Byzantine Emperor
Manuel I Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos (; 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180), Latinized as Comnenus, also called Porphyrogenitus (; " born in the purple"), was a Byzantine emperor of the 12th century who reigned over a crucial turning point in the history o ...
secretly hindered the crusaders' progress, particularly in Anatolia, where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them. However, this alleged sabotage of the Crusade by the Byzantines was likely fabricated by Odo, who saw the Empire as an obstacle; moreover, Emperor Manuel had no political reason to do so. Louis and Conrad reached
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
in 1148, where the remnants of their armies participated in an ill-advised attack on
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
that ended in their retreat. Crusader efforts were successful in Iberia, where several territories—including
Lisbon Lisbon ( ; ) is the capital and largest city of Portugal, with an estimated population of 567,131, as of 2023, within its administrative limits and 3,028,000 within the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, metropolis, as of 2025. Lisbon is mainlan ...
, the future capital of the
Portuguese Empire The Portuguese Empire was a colonial empire that existed between 1415 and 1999. In conjunction with the Spanish Empire, it ushered in the European Age of Discovery. It achieved a global scale, controlling vast portions of the Americas, Africa ...
—were conquered. The initial response to the new crusade bull, with incipit ', was poor, and it in fact had to be reissued when it was clear that
Louis VII of France Louis VII (1120 – 18 September 1180), called the Younger or the Young () to differentiate him from his father Louis VI, was King of France from 1137 to 1180. His first marriage was to Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine, one of the wealthiest and ...
would be taking part in the expedition. Louis VII had also been considering a new expedition independently of the Pope, which he announced to his Christmas court at Bourges in 1145. It is debatable whether Louis was planning a crusade of his own or in fact a pilgrimage, as he wanted to fulfill a vow made by his dead brother Philip to go to the Holy Land. It is probable that Louis had made this decision without having heard about the bull. In any case, Abbot Suger and other nobles were not in favour of Louis's plans, as he would be gone from the kingdom for several years. Louis consulted
Bernard of Clairvaux Bernard of Clairvaux, Cistercians, O.Cist. (; 109020 August 1153), venerated as Saint Bernard, was an abbot, Mysticism, mystic, co-founder of the Knights Templar, and a major leader in the reform of the Benedictines through the nascent Cistercia ...
, who referred him back to Eugene. By now Louis would have definitely heard about the papal bull, and Eugene enthusiastically supported Louis's crusade. The bull was reissued on 1 March 1146, and Eugene authorized Bernard to preach the news throughout France.


Background


Rise of Imad al-Din Zengi

In 1084, the Great Seljuk Empire was almost at its apex, ruling
Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
,
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
,
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
,
Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...
, and many other lands in the
Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...
. Its sultan was the great and warlike Seljuk Turk Malik-Shah I. To help in his wars in the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
, in 1084, Malik-Shah I assigned many Turkish beys to aid his general, Fakhr ad-Dawla ibn Jahir, in the capture of the
Uqaylid dynasty The Uqaylid dynasty () was a Shia Islam, Shia Arab dynasty with several lines that ruled in various parts of Al-Jazira (caliphal province), Al-Jazira, northern Bilad al-Sham, Syria and Iraq in the late tenth and eleventh centuries. The main line ...
. One of these beys was Aq Sunqur al-Hajib. After successfully doing his job, Aq Sunqur al-Hajib was appointed the governor of
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
in 1086. Aq-Sunqur ruled
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
for eight years. Because of the many conflicts between the rulers and princes of the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
region at the time, conditions within the city were difficult. A combination of high taxes and goods prices led to an increase in crime. However, Aq-Sunqur was a good ruler. He began reforming life in
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
by fixing the security situation in Aleppo and its environs. He activated the Hudud in Islam, repelling thieves and bandits and stamping out corruption. He increased the use of the
police The police are Law enforcement organization, a constituted body of Law enforcement officer, people empowered by a State (polity), state with the aim of Law enforcement, enforcing the law and protecting the Public order policing, public order ...
to secure civilian rights. He used the police authority to protect people rather than to control them, something many other Turkic beys did. Aq-Sunqur created the "principle of collective responsibility" for every village or sector, which meant that if a village was raided by thieves, the whole village shared the responsibility of defending it. Because of his policy to make order in the city, Aleppo once again became a great city, being again a suitable place for trading and farming as its economy recovered and inflation went down. He asked the people to not remove their goods from the road should they travel, stating that he would guarantee that their goods would not be stolen. Aq-Sunqur gained a good reputation over the people he ruled. However, war would once again plague the city. In 1089, Aq-Sunqur was sent together with Bozan and Yağısıyan by Malik Shah to aid his brother Tutush to capture cities that the Fatimids had reconquered under Badr al-Jamali. However, the coalition fell apart when Aq Sunqur refused to continue the siege of Tripoli after he had been bribed and claimed the city had proclaimed allegiance. After the death of Malik Shah, Tutush I tried to become Sultan himself and Aq Sunqur first supported his bid until he and Bozan defected again, forcing Tutush to withdraw. In return, Tutush marched on Aq-Sunqur in March/April together with Yağısıyan. Aq Sunqur was defeated and captured in battle on 27 May 1094 after a part of his Türkmen defected. Aq -unqur was then decapitated together with fourteen others by Tutush. He died when his son Imad al-Din Zengi was only 10 years old. Zengi would not return to his birthplace and home for another 34 years. The young man now looked for a new home. He found one in
Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
, where he was brought up by
Kerbogha Qiwam al-Dawla Kerbogha (), known as Kerbogha or Karbughā, was the Turkoman (ethnonym), Turkoman List of rulers of Mosul#Seljuk Atabegs, atabeg of Mosul during the First Crusade and was renowned as a soldier. Early life Kerbogha was a Selju ...
, the city’s ambitious governor. He spent time raising and teaching the boy, letting Zengi then served in the military of the Governors of Mosul, first under Jawali Saqawa (1106–1109), then Mawdud (1109–1113), and from 1114, under Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi, fighting Crusaders on many times, gaining experience fighting them. In fact in 1111, in a campaign against the Crusaders, he led a siege of Edessa, but failed due to less supplies. However it would not be the last time he would stand under the city’s great walls. Zengi remained in Mosul until 1118, when he entered into the service of the new Seljuk ruler Mahmūd (1118–1119). Zengi was loyal to the
Seljuk Empire The Seljuk Empire, or the Great Seljuk Empire, was a High Middle Ages, high medieval, culturally Turco-Persian tradition, Turco-Persian, Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslim empire, established and ruled by the Qiniq (tribe), Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks. ...
just like his father, even though it was crumbling and decaying due to civil strife and war. Upon Sanjar's accession in 1119, Zengi remained loyal to Mahmūd, who became the governor of
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
for the Seljuk Sultan. The region of
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
was under the control of the
Seljuk Empire The Seljuk Empire, or the Great Seljuk Empire, was a High Middle Ages, high medieval, culturally Turco-Persian tradition, Turco-Persian, Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslim empire, established and ruled by the Qiniq (tribe), Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks. ...
from 1055 to 1135, since Tughril Beg had expelled the Shiite Buyid dynasty. Tughril Beg was the first Seljuk ruler to style himself Sultan and Protector of the Abbasid Caliphate. Mesopotamia remained under the control of the Great Seljuks during the reign of Muhammad I Tapar (1082–1118), but from 1119, his 14 years old son
Mahmud II Mahmud II (, ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms ...
(1118–1131) was restricted to the only rule of Iraq, while Sanjar took control of the rest of the Empire. Wishing to contain the Banu Mazyad leader Dubais ibn Sadaqa, in 1122 Mahmūd II ordered a military expedition from
Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
to southern
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
, commanded by Zengi and Altun-Tash al-Aburi under the orders of Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi. Zengi, for whom this was the first major military command, garrisoned his troops around Wasit, and was granted Governorship of the region of Wasit as an '' ıqta''. In alliance with the troops of the Caliphate, they defeated Dubays at the Battle of Mubarraqiyya in 1123. Zengi then received in addition to his previous responsibilities the Military Governorship of
Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
in 1124. In order to counter the ambitions of Abbasid Caliph al-Mustarshid (1118–1135), who wanted to acquire world dominance, the Seljuks led by
Mahmud II Mahmud II (, ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms ...
now waged a campaign against him. Now, Zengi faced his first real test of loyalty, will he side with the Caliph, the supposed successor of
Muhammad Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...
, or the Seljuk Empire? Zengi chose the Seljuks and decisively defeated the
Abbasid Caliphate The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes ...
. The Seljuks managed to take control of
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
and the Caliphate, pillaging the Caliph's palace. The Caliph sued for peace and had to pay a huge ransom. In addition to his possessions in Wasit and
Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
, Zengi was promoted and received the Governorship for
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
in April 1126, receiving the title of '' shihna'' which effectively put him in control of the whole of Seljuk
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
. After his many campaigns against the Crusaders, which culminated to his defeat at the Battle of Azaz (1125) by them, the ruler of
Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
, Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi was murdered in the
November November is the eleventh and penultimate month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 30 days. November was the ninth month of the calendar of Romulus . November retained its name (from the Latin ''novem'' meaning " ...
of 1126. His son Mas’ûd ibn Bursuqî became the next ruler but he was quickly overshadowed by Zengi. In 1227, following the murder of Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi, Zengi was named Governor of Mosul, where his Zengid dynasty was formed with land for the first time in 33 years. From there, Zengi took control of
Nisibis Nusaybin () is a municipality and Districts of Turkey, district of Mardin Province, Turkey. Its area is 1,079 km2, and its population is 115,586 (2022). The city is populated by Kurds of different tribal affiliation. Nusaybin is separated ...
, Sinjar,
Harran Harran is a municipality and Districts of Turkey, district of Şanlıurfa Province, Turkey. Its area is 904 km2, and its population is 96,072 (2022). It is approximately southeast of Urfa and from the Syrian border crossing at Akçakale. ...
, and all of
Upper Mesopotamia Upper Mesopotamia constitutes the Upland and lowland, uplands and great outwash plain of northwestern Iraq, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey, in the northern Middle East. Since the early Muslim conquests of the mid-7th century, the regio ...
and Northern
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
. The slowness of the Crusaders to react to Aleppo’s weakened state after its ruler, Al-Bursuqi’s death due to Joscelin I of Edessa’s and Bohemond II of Antioch’s quarrel over Azaz, Zengi was able to retake the city and all of Northern
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
and see it again for the first time in 34 years. Zengi had those two cities formally invested by the Sultan,
Mahmud II Mahmud II (, ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. Often described as the "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud instituted extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms ...
. Zengi managed to create a giant empire all over the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
and
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
not seen for years. He was the greatest threat the Crusaders had ever faced so far. Zengi was a great, inspiring, wise, and brave commander and soldier who was also ruthless and cruel. He was also a heavy drinker. However, this personality was perfect for rallying Muslims to fight the Crusaders. According to Ibn 'al-Adim: However, Zengi knew he couldn’t fight the Crusaders just yet, as they were ruled by powerful and experienced rulers and soldiers too like him. They included the aging Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Joscelin I of Edessa. So Zengi signed a truce with Joscelin in 1130.


Death of Baldwin II and Joscelin I

Now Zengi looked south for lands to conquer. Burid
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
had lost its ruler, Toghtekin in 1128. This led to the city also being weakened by civil strife, similar to what happened to
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
after Al-Bursuqi’s death, leading to the Crusaders taking Banias. However, Baldwin II of Jerusalem also eyed Damascus and all of its rich lands in the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
. But the aging king first had to solve his succession. Baldwin had no male heirs so he had to decide who will succeed him and marry his daughter, Melisende. He chose Fulk of Anjou, an experienced warrior, leader, and crusader. So Baldwin called for a Crusade Against Damascus. He marched all the way to the walls of
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
where he and his army faced off the Burid army under Toghtekin’s capable son, Tāj al-Mulūk Būrī across a bridge. In the standoff, Buri managed to threaten Baldwin’s supply lines long enough to force him to attack the Burid army across the bridge. However, as the Crusaders charged across the bridge, a thunderstorm started, threatening visibility and forcing the Crusaders to shamefully retreat. The failure to capture
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
in the
Crusade The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...
marked the end of the Crusader States zenith and Baldwin II’s dream to expand the Crusader Kingdoms’ land deeper into the
Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...
. With the failure of the Crusade came new crises. After the Crusade, Bohemond II of Antioch decided to recover Anazarbus and other territories which had been lost to
Cilician Armenia The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, also known as Cilician Armenia, Lesser Armenia, Little Armenia or New Armenia, and formerly known as the Armenian Principality of Cilicia, was an Armenians, Armenian state formed during the High Middle Ages b ...
. He invaded
Cilician Armenia The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, also known as Cilician Armenia, Lesser Armenia, Little Armenia or New Armenia, and formerly known as the Armenian Principality of Cilicia, was an Armenians, Armenian state formed during the High Middle Ages b ...
in the
February February is the second month of the year in the Julian calendar, Julian and Gregorian calendars. The month has 28 days in common years and 29 in leap years, with the February 29, 29th day being called the ''leap day''. February is the third a ...
of 1130, traveling along the Ceyhan River. Leo I of Cilicia sought assistance from the Danishmends under Emir Gazi against the Antiochene threat. Emir Gazi who made a surprise attack on Bohemond's army. Bohemond and his soldiers were massacred in the battle. According to Michael the Syrian, the Turks killed Bohemond II of Antioch because they did not recognize him; had they recognized him, they would have saved him so they could demand a ransom from him. Emir Gazi had Bohemond's head embalmed and sent to Al-Mustarshid, the
Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 C ...
caliph A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...
in
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
. Emir Gazi may have been able to conquer more territory in the Principality of Antioch after the victory if not for the intervention of Eastern Roman emperor
John II Komnenos John II Komnenos or Comnenus (; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was List of Byzantine emperors, Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexio ...
, who wished to exert his own influence in
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
. Bohemond had been a promising ruler, and the first clearly legitimate prince in Antioch since 1105. Asbridge believes that his death must have been a shattering blow to the Franks of Antioch. They had been protecting the Principality for years, losing many knights and soldiers in the process. Baldwin had spent his entire reign protecting Antioch, just for Bohemond to die and leave the realm again to another child ruler. His only child, Constance was only two years old and she needed a regent to rule the
principality A principality (or sometimes princedom) is a type of monarchy, monarchical state or feudalism, feudal territory ruled by a prince or princess. It can be either a sovereign state or a constituent part of a larger political entity. The term "prin ...
before she could come of age. The Franks of
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
decided to send for Alice's father, King Baldwin, to come and take control, and when Baldwin heard the news of the battle, he instantly travelled to Antioch to make arrangements for the administration of the Principality of Antioch. However, Baldwin’s daughter and Bohemond’s wife, Alice of Jerusalem wanted to establish herself as regent during the minority of her and Bohemond's infant daughter, Constance, so she acted first and seized control of the city. Archbishop William of Tyre, the Jerusalemite chronicler who wrote long after these events, records that Alice intended to claim the principality for herself "in perpetuity", dispossessing her infant daughter, Constance of Antioch. Rumors spread in Antioch that Alice planned to send Constance to a
convent A convent is an enclosed community of monks, nuns, friars or religious sisters. Alternatively, ''convent'' means the building used by the community. The term is particularly used in the Catholic Church, Lutheran churches, and the Anglican ...
or to have her marry a commoner. Asbridge, however, says that it is not clear whether Alice wished to divert the succession from Constance or to rule as
regent In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...
, as was usual for the mother of a child ruler. Asbridge argues that Alice's success in seizing power proves that William cannot be correct in claiming that she had no major supporters. Meanwhile, Bohemond II of Antioch's cousin,
Roger II of Sicily Roger II or Roger the Great (, , Greek language, Greek: Ρογέριος; 22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of Kingdom of Sicily, Sicily and Kingdom of Africa, Africa, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother Simon, C ...
regarded himself as Bohemond's lawful successor because he was the senior member of the House of Hauteville. King Baldwin II of Jerusalem hastened to
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
with his son-in-law Fulk of Anjou to take custody of his granddaughter Constance of Antioch and appoint a regent.
Alice Alice may refer to: * Alice (name), most often a feminine given name, but also used as a surname Literature * Alice (''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''), a character in books by Lewis Carroll * ''Alice'' series, children's and teen books by ...
, William says, then took another drastic move for power. She attempted to ally herself with Imad ad-Din Zengi, the ruler of all of
Upper Mesopotamia Upper Mesopotamia constitutes the Upland and lowland, uplands and great outwash plain of northwestern Iraq, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey, in the northern Middle East. Since the early Muslim conquests of the mid-7th century, the regio ...
and Northern
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
and
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
and
Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
. She offered to make Antioch a Seljuk tributary in exchange for protection from her father. However her messenger was captured by Baldwin’s men. After Baldwin learned of Alice’s schemes from the messenger, the messenger was killed. This account is widely accepted in traditional historiography, but Asbridge is suspicious because it is not confirmed in either Christian or Muslim contemporary sources. When her father appeared at the gates of Antioch, Alice ordered them shut, and garnered support by distributing money from the princely treasury. Historian Steven Runciman speculates that her Armenian heritage may have endeared her to the city's native Christians. Encamped outside the city, Baldwin sent for Joscelin of Edessa. After a few days, a monk named Peter Latinator and a knight called William of Aversa opened the gates to Fulk and Joscelin, allowing the king to enter. They were strongly opposed to Alice’s plans to make the principality a Muslim tributary. Alice took refuge in a tower and only emerged after city officials guaranteed her life. She knelt before her father, who forgave her but removed her from power. Baldwin had the Antiochene nobles swear fealty to himself and Constance, and then gave the guardianship of the principality and its heir to Joscelin. Joscelin was to rule the principality until a marriage could be arranged for Constance. Alice retained Latakia and Jabala, leaving her extremely powerful because those cities were the main ports of the northern Levant. This enabled to However, Zengi received Alice’s pleas for aid and he saw it as an opportunity to reassert Muslim control over the eastern frontier of the Principality of Antioch. Zengi invaded and raided the territories of Antioch; in the Spring of 1130, he laid siege to Atharib. When the Franks and King Baldwin, who was in command of a Latin army, advanced to relieve the city, his officers advised him to retreat. However, the bold and daring Baldwin scorned their advice and marched towards the Zengid position. A
battle A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force co ...
followed and Zengi emerged victorious. After conquering the citadel of Atharib, Zengi destroyed it and razed it to the ground. Zengi then advanced on the fortress of
Harem A harem is a domestic space that is reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A harem may house a man's wife or wives, their pre-pubescent male children, unmarried daughters, female domestic Domestic worker, servants, and other un ...
but its inhabitants persuaded him to abandon his siege in return for half of the district's revenues. A truce was concluded and Zengi returned to his territories. According to William of Tyre, Baldwin fell seriously ill after his return from Antioch. He was already dying when he made arrangements for his succession in August 1131. Baldwin had himself transferred to the Holy Sepulchre as he wanted to die as close to Christ as possible. Then he bequeathed the kingdom to Fulk of Anjou, Melisende of Jerusalem and their infant son, Baldwin. He took monastic vows and entered the collegiate chapter of the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, also known as the Church of the Resurrection, is a fourth-century church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, Old City of Jerusalem. The church is the seat of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchat ...
, where he died on 21 August. He was buried in the Holy Sepulchre. Fulk and Melisende were to be joint rulers of the Kingdom according to Baldwin’s will and serve as guardians to their sons Baldwin. The coronation of Fulk and Melisende took place on 14 September, the Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. It was the first time that a ruler of Jerusalem had been crowned in this way. On the occasion of his coronation, the Egyptian ruler Kutayfat sent Fulk an ivory object described as "the ivory tau". Fulk subsequently sent the ivory tau back to his palace at
Angers Angers (, , ;) is a city in western France, about southwest of Paris. It is the Prefectures of France, prefecture of the Maine-et-Loire department and was the capital of the province of Duchy of Anjou, Anjou until the French Revolution. The i ...
with instructions that it should be used to ceremonially receive counts of Anjou. At the beginning of 1130 Zengi desired to gain political legitimacy in Syria, as a result he married the daughter of the former ruler of
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
.El-Azhari, Taef
Zengi and the Muslim response to the Crusades: The politics of Jihad.
Routledge, 2016.
In 1130 Zengi allied with Taj al-Mulk Buri of the
Burid dynasty The Burid dynasty (Arabic: الدولة البورية Romanized: ad-Dawlā al-Būriyā) or the Emirate of Damascus (Arabic: إمارة دمشق Romanized: Imarat Dimashq) was a Sunni Muslim dynasty of Oghuz Turkic origin which ruled over the Emi ...
in
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
(the Burid dynasty was named after Buri) against the Crusaders, but this was only a ruse to extend his power. Buri knew this and took caution. However Buri soon overcame his doubts about Zengi. So he sent his son Sawinj, lord of Hama, in command of 500 elite knights. The warm welcome and hospitality of Zengi banished any doubts and mistrust that Sawinj and his commanders may have had. Three days later Zengi had Sawinj and his commanders arrested and imprisoned in Aleppo. Zengi managed to loot the camp of Sawinj and confiscate all of his weapons, he then laid siege to Manbij and Hama which he captured in October 1130. He also tried to besiege
Homs Homs ( ; ), known in pre-Islamic times as Emesa ( ; ), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level, above sea level and is located north of Damascus. Located on the Orontes River, Homs is ...
but failed. This began the long rivalry between Burid
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
and Zengid
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
. In 1131, during the siege of a small Zengid castle north-east of
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
, a
sapper A sapper, also called a combat engineer, is a combatant or soldier who performs a variety of military engineering duties, such as breaching fortifications, demolitions, bridge-building, laying or clearing minefields, preparing field defenses ...
's mine collapsed and Joscelin I of Edessa was gravely injured. Following this he received word that Emir Gazi of the Danishmendids was besieging the fortress town of Kaysun. Joscelin asked his son, Joscelin II to relieve the siege. However, the cowardly Joscelin refused to do so, as he claimed that Gazi had many more men then the Edessans. This forced Joscelin to command the army to relieve Kaysun. Joscelin was borne on a litter. Emir Gazi believed that Joscelin had already died so when he heard that Joscelin's army was approaching, he lifted the siege and retreated. Joscelin won his final battle but the journey to Kaysun opened his wounds. Joscelin died soon after. In 7 May 1131, two Assassins of Buri's personal guard, probably sent from Alamut for that purpose, tried to kill him, and he was severely wounded. Despite the care of Damascus' best physicians, he accelerated his convalescence. After riding a horse, his wound opened back, causing his death in 6 June 1132. He was married to Zumurrud Khatun. He was succeeded by his three sons Shams al-Mulk Isma'il, Shihab ed-Din Mahmud, and Jamal ad-Din Muhammad who fought one another over the inheritance. Mahmud II died in 1131, setting off a war for the succession of the Great Seljuk Empire. As the Seljuk princes were occupied fighting one another in Persia, Zengi marched on Baghdad to add it to his dominions. He was defeated by the caliph's troops, however, and only escaped thanks to the help of the Kurdish governor of Tikrit, Najm ad-Din Ayyub, the father of a certain
Saladin Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub ( – 4 March 1193), commonly known as Saladin, was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Hailing from a Kurdish family, he was the first sultan of both Egypt and Syria. An important figure of the Third Crusade, h ...
. Several years later, Zengi would reward the governor with a position in his army, paving the way for Saladin's brilliant career.


Fulk’s and Alice’s Struggles For Power

From the start Fulk assumed sole control of the government, excluding Melisende altogether. He favoured fellow countrymen from Anjou to the native nobility. The other
Crusader states The Crusader states, or Outremer, were four Catholic polities established in the Levant region and southeastern Anatolia from 1098 to 1291. Following the principles of feudalism, the foundation for these polities was laid by the First Crusade ...
to the north feared that Fulk would attempt to impose the suzerainty of Jerusalem over them, as Baldwin II had done. As Fulk was far less powerful than his deceased father-in-law, the northern states rejected his authority. Early in her queenship, Melisende found herself deprived of the power she had possessed during her father's lifetime. Fulk did not associate her in any of his public acts for the first five years of the new reign. He deliberately attempted to sideline Melisende, which was in contravention of both their marriage contract and Baldwin II's last will. Melisende's exclusion from power was not just a matter of protocol: without a role in the government she could not grant appointments and land. Melisende's sister Alice of Antioch, exiled from the Principality by Baldwin II, took control of Antioch once more after the death of her father. In 1132, she allied with Pons of Tripoli and Joscelin II of Edessa to prevent Fulk from marching north. Fulk and Pons fought a brief battle before peace was made and Alice was exiled again. Alice saw an opportunity to make her second bid for power with the deaths of Joscelin I and Baldwin II. She allied with Counts Joscelin II of Edessa and Pons of Tripoli, neither of whom wished to accept Fulk's
suzerainty A suzerain (, from Old French "above" + "supreme, chief") is a person, state (polity)">state or polity who has supremacy and dominant influence over the foreign policy">polity.html" ;"title="state (polity)">state or polity">state (polity)">st ...
, and also had the support of a major Antiochene baron, William of Saone. According to William of Tyre, Alice bribed Pons into the alliance. An embassy of concerned Antiochene nobles informed Fulk of the plot. As Fulk attempted to go to Antioch, Pons refused the king passage through Tripoli. Fulk was forced to avoid the county and travel by sea to the Antiochene port of Saint Symeon (now Samandağ in Turkey). Pons hurried to Antioch and launched a series of attacks against Fulk and his allies from the Antiochene fortresses Arcicanum and Rugia (two castles forming his wife's dowry). Fulk attacked Pons near Rugia in late 1132. Pons suffered a heavy defeat. Although many of his retainers were captured on the battlefield, he was able to flee. His soldiers were taken in chains to Antioch where they were either imprisoned or executed. Pons lost Rugia, but Fulk did not restore the suzerainty of the kings of Jerusalem over Tripoli. However Fulk was not strong enough to punish the rebels nor to break up Alice's party. The king stayed in Antioch for some time, and left Rainald I Masoir as regent. Pons renounced the estates he held in the county of
Velay Velay () is a historical area of France situated in the east Haute-Loire ''Département in France, département'' and southeast of Massif central, Massif Central. History Julius Caesar mentioned the vellavi as the subordinate of the arverni. ...
(in France) in favor of the
bishop of Le Puy The Diocese of Le Puy-en-Velay (Latin: ''Dioecesis Aniciensis''; French: ''Diocèse du Puy-en-Velay'' ) is a Latin diocese of the Catholic Church in France. The diocese comprises the whole Department of Haute-Loire, in the Region of Auvergne-R ...
in 1132. He had the ''ra'īs'' (native chief) of Tripoli killed for unknown reasons in 1132 or 1133. The killing of a native chief at a crusader ruler's order was an unprecedented act. Lewis argues that it was a sign of growing unrest among the local population. Actually, the Nizari strengthened their hold on the mountainous region along the northern border of the county in the 1130s. Imad ad-Din Zengi,
atabeg Atabeg, Atabek, or Atabey is a hereditary title of nobility of Turkic language, Turkic origin, indicating a governor of a nation or province who was subordinate to a monarch and charged with raising the crown prince. The first instance of the ti ...
of Mosul, invaded the County of Tripoli, plundering the capital and the neighboring region in 1133. The
Count of Tripoli The count of Tripoli was the ruler of the County of Tripoli, a crusader state from 1102 through to 1289. Of the four major crusader states in the Levant, Tripoli was created last. The history of the counts of Tripoli began with Raymond IV, Coun ...
, Pons of Tripoli led an army to meet the Zengids, who were near Rafaniyya. Initially, the Zengids avoided battle and Pons chased them, but the Zengids turned back and fought the Crusaders, inflicting a heavy defeat on Pons's army. Few of the Crusaders survived the battle. Pons and his few men retreated towards Montferrand. The Zengids chased them and quickly besieged the castle. Pons managed to slip from the castle with 20 men and head towards Tripoli, where he managed to send a letter to the Latin king, Fulk I of Jerusalem, to send a relief force. Despite Pons’s previous support of Alice against him, Pons’s call was quickly answered by Fulk and he led a Crusader force to meet the Zengids. Hearing this, the Zengids marched to meet the Crusader force, and in a heavy battle, both sides suffered severe casualties, and the Crusaders were almost defeated. The battle ended in stalemate when the Latins retreated towards Rafaniyya while the Zengids withdrew to their territory. The Zengids now attacked Edessa. Joscelin initially struggled to fight off the raiding Zengids. However, Fulk and Pons soon arrived to assist their comrade and with the help of both of them, Joscelin was able to repel the Zengids. Fulk returned again to Antioch in late 1133 or early 1134. In concert with the Antiochene nobles he sent an offer to Raymond of Poitiers, a younger son of Duke William IX of Aquitaine, to come from France to become the new prince of Antioch. The invitation to Raymond was kept secret to prevent a counter strike by either Alice or King
Roger II of Sicily Roger II or Roger the Great (, , Greek language, Greek: Ρογέριος; 22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of Kingdom of Sicily, Sicily and Kingdom of Africa, Africa, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother Simon, C ...
, who was Constance's closest relative on her father's side and may have had his own designs on the principality. Alice remained active throughout the 1130s. By 1134 at the latest she had started developing an independent government at Latakia and issuing charters through her own scriptorium as "Alice, second daughter of Baldwin king of Jerusalem, once wife of Lord Bohemond, son of Bohemond the Great, most excellent prince of Antioch, by the grace of God princess of Antioch". She had her own
chancellor Chancellor () is a title of various official positions in the governments of many countries. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the (lattice work screens) of a basilica (court hall), which separa ...
,
constable A constable is a person holding a particular office, most commonly in law enforcement. The office of constable can vary significantly in different jurisdictions. ''Constable'' is commonly the rank of an officer within a police service. Other peo ...
, and possibly other officers. Asbridge maintains that she saw herself as an "absentee princess or regent", while his colleague Malcolm Barber believes that Rainald Masoir needed Alice's co-operation to govern the principality effectively. Her court became the center of opposition to Fulk's rule in the crusader states. In 1134 she hosted Hugh II of Jaffa, who in the same year led a major revolt against Fulk. William of Tyre recorded the rumor that the queen was having an illicit relationship with the "young and very handsome" Count Hugh II of Jaffa, drawing the king's ire. Hamilton and Mayer both discount the gossip. Mayer argues that William himself did not believe the rumor and that a medieval queen, being constantly attended by the members of her household and the court, would have found it exceedingly difficult to have a secret lover. Hamilton, on the other hand, argues that public opinion, spearheaded by the clergy, would have sided with Fulk and not, as it did, with Melisende if she had committed adultery. Mayer suspects that the rumors may have been spread by Fulk to both get rid of Hugh and to have Melisende locked up in a monastery, circumventing Baldwin II's will. Hugh's stepson Walter I Grenier, lord of Caesarea, openly accused him of
treason Treason is the crime of attacking a state (polity), state authority to which one owes allegiance. This typically includes acts such as participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to Coup d'état, overthrow its government, spy ...
at court. Mayer suggests that Walter may have been incited to make this accusation. Hugh denied the charge and was challenged to a trial by combat, but did not appear. The king thus obtained a legal reason to confiscate Hugh's County of Jaffa. So in 1134, noblemen led by Melisende's second cousin and vassal Count Hugh II of Jaffa revolted against Fulk. Hugh revolted alongside Roman of Le Puy, lord of Oultrejordain. One reason for the conflict other than the rumor of an affair between Melisende and Hugh had originated from Fulk's replacement of the kingdom's established nobility with newcomers from Anjou. According to Mayer, the noblemen may have expected to be protected by the queen from the king's designs if they succeeded in restoring her to the place in government which her father had intended for her to have. The historian Malcolm Barber argues that Melisende must have been involved in the revolt, but concedes that her role is unknown. Hugh allied with the
Fatimid The Fatimid Caliphate (; ), also known as the Fatimid Empire, was a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries CE under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty, Fatimids, an Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty. Spanning a large area of North Africa ...
city of Ascalon, and Fulk invaded
Jaffa Jaffa (, ; , ), also called Japho, Joppa or Joppe in English, is an ancient Levantine Sea, Levantine port city which is part of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel, located in its southern part. The city sits atop a naturally elevated outcrop on ...
and besieged the city. Hugh's rear-vassals, including Baldwin of Ramla and Barisan, constable of Jaffa, deserted him and "wisely betook themselves to the king." (William of Tyre, 14.16) The usual punishment for such actions was permanent exile and confiscation of the rebel's territories, but in this case, perhaps due to Hugh's high status in the kingdom and his relationship with the queen, the Patriarch William mediated in the dispute, and Hugh was exiled for only three years. Hugh was free to remain in Jerusalem while waiting for a ship to take him into exile. One day, while playing
dice A die (: dice, sometimes also used as ) is a small, throwable object with marked sides that can rest in multiple positions. Dice are used for generating random values, commonly as part of tabletop games, including dice games, board games, ro ...
on the street, he was brutally attacked by a Breton knight. Rumours spread that Fulk had hired the knight to assassinate Hugh, and public opinion considered Hugh to be innocent of the charges of treason and conspiracy. Fulk ordered "...that the tongue should not be included among the members so mutilated", supposedly so that he would not be accused of trying to silence the knight. In any case, the knight claimed to have acted on his own.” Though Fulk's involvement was never proven, his reputation was severely damaged. Nevertheless, Fulk no longer had the support of the public in the dispute. Hugh remained in the kingdom for a short time, while his wounds healed. He then went into exile in
Apulia Apulia ( ), also known by its Italian language, Italian name Puglia (), is a Regions of Italy, region of Italy, located in the Southern Italy, southern peninsular section of the country, bordering the Adriatic Sea to the east, the Strait of Ot ...
, where his relative
Roger II of Sicily Roger II or Roger the Great (, , Greek language, Greek: Ρογέριος; 22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of Kingdom of Sicily, Sicily and Kingdom of Africa, Africa, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother Simon, C ...
named him Count of Gargan. Hugh never fully recovered, and died soon after his arrival. Melisende was incensed by Fulk's treatment of Hugh and the slight on her honor. Fulk's men did not dare appear in her presence. The queen directed most of her wrath at the
viscount A viscount ( , for male) or viscountess (, for female) is a title used in certain European countries for a noble of varying status. The status and any domain held by a viscount is a viscounty. In the case of French viscounts, the title is ...
, Rohard the Elder, whom she held most responsible for influencing Fulk. Melisende, who was legally the
queen regnant A queen regnant (: queens regnant) is a female monarch, equivalent in rank, title and position to a king. She reigns ''suo jure'' (in her own right) over a realm known as a kingdom; as opposed to a queen consort, who is married to a reigning ...
, was supported by the Church and various other nobles, and Fulk and his supporters in the dispute for a time felt unwelcome and even unsafe. According to William of Tyre, "from that day forward, the king became so uxorious that...not even in unimportant cases did he take any measures without her knowledge and assistance." (William of Tyre, 14.18) Fulk even feared for his own life. Mayer suggests that for this reason, Fulk stayed in Antioch in 1135. The court was disrupted until third parties mediated a reconciliation between the king and queen. After persistent attempts, Fulk succeeded in obtaining Melisende's pardon for Rohard and his other supporters, who were then able to appear at court again. From then on Fulk, in the words of William of Tyre, "did not attempt to take the initiative, even in trivial matters, without her knowledge". Fulk began to build numerous castles in the area of Jaffa, including Ibelin, to defend against Egyptian invasions. As a consequence of the revolt, the former rear-vassals of Jaffa became more powerful, such as the Lordship of Ramla. The lords of Ibelin and Ramla would become important in the affairs of the kingdom later in the century.


Raymond of Poitiers’s Arrival

Meanwhile, Zengi led an attack on Antioch himself. In the spring of 1135, he captured Bara, Maarat al-Numan, Maarrat Misrin, Taladah, Zardana, and Atharib, basically every border fort east of the
Orontes River The Orontes (; from Ancient Greek , ) or Nahr al-ʿĀṣī, or simply Asi (, ; ) is a long river in Western Asia that begins in Lebanon, flowing northwards through Syria before entering the Mediterranean Sea near Samandağ in Hatay Province, Turk ...
which Baldwin II had spent his entire reign as King recapturing from Ilghazi. He did this while his lieutenant Sawar threatened Turbessel, Aintab and Azaz.Runciman, Steven
A History of the Crusades. Vol. 3.
CUP Archive, 1987.
Following this successful campaign against Antioch, the
Count of Tripoli The count of Tripoli was the ruler of the County of Tripoli, a crusader state from 1102 through to 1289. Of the four major crusader states in the Levant, Tripoli was created last. The history of the counts of Tripoli began with Raymond IV, Coun ...
, Pons of Tripoli attempted to block the road that crossed Syria from north to south and launched an offensive against Qinnasrin, however Zengi repelled this attack in the Battle of Qinnasrin. Meanwhile, the Patriarch of Antioch, Bernard of Valence died in the late summer of 1135. Constance, was now seven, and so the incumbent bishops of the principality gathered uncanonically in
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
to choose Bernard's successor. While they were meeting, the people of Antioch chose Ralph of Domfront, who happened to be in the city although he was not attending the council. Although William of Tyre presents Ralph's election as the spontaneous action of the people, it was probably orchestrated by Ralph and some of his Italo-Norman compatriots. The king's bailiff, Rainald I Masoir, and the party that favored a marriage between Constance and Raymond of Poitiers have often been suspected by historians as they may have done so in an attempt to counter Alice's party. At this enthronement, Ralph took Bernard's '' pallium'' from the altar and put it on. He explicitly rejected the supremacy of the
Pope The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...
, saying that both Rome and Antioch were "the see of Peter and Antioch was the firstborn." Pope Innocent II took no action against Ralph out of fear that the latter would choose to recognise the Antipope Anacletus II instead. Towards the end of 1135 Alice marched to Antioch and again assumed power. Alice persuaded her sister Melisende in a letter, who then granted her safe return from exile. Melisende also interceded with Fulk not to interfere and let her replace him as regent of Antioch. Alice had the support of the new patriarch, and is not recorded to have encountered resistance from Masoir. Alice knew that she was unpopular within Antioch and she knew that this time Zengi wouldn’t risk coming to her aid this time. So, Alice contacted another enemy of Antioch, the Byzantines, seeking a marriage either for herself or for Constance with Manuel Komnenos, son of Emperor
John II Komnenos John II Komnenos or Comnenus (; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was List of Byzantine emperors, Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexio ...
, in exchange for Byzantine protection as a vassal. When his marriage was arranged with Constance, Raymond of Poitiers, was at the time staying in
England England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and List of islands of England, more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It ...
, which he left only after the death of
Henry I of England Henry I ( – 1 December 1135), also known as Henry Beauclerc, was King of England from 1100 to his death in 1135. He was the fourth son of William the Conqueror and was educated in Latin and the liberal arts. On William's death in 1087, Henr ...
on 1 December 1135. Upon hearing word that Raymond was going to pass through his lands in order to marry the princess of Antioch,
King King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
Roger II of Sicily Roger II or Roger the Great (, , Greek language, Greek: Ρογέριος; 22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of Kingdom of Sicily, Sicily and Kingdom of Africa, Africa, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother Simon, C ...
ordered him arrested. By a series of subterfuges, Raymond passed through
southern Italy Southern Italy (, , or , ; ; ), also known as () or (; ; ; ), is a macroregion of Italy consisting of its southern Regions of Italy, regions. The term "" today mostly refers to the regions that are associated with the people, lands or cultu ...
and only arrived at
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
after 19 April 1136. Raymond of Poitiers is described by William of Tyre (the main authority for his career) as "''a lord of noble descent, of tall and elegant figure, the handsomest of the princes of the earth, a man of charming affability and conversation, open-handed and magnificent beyond measure''"; pre-eminent in the use of arms and military experience; ''litteratorum, licet ipse esset, cultor'' ("although he was himself illiterate, he was a cultivator of literature" – he caused the '' Chanson des chétifs'' to be composed); a regular churchman and faithful husband; but headstrong, irascible and unreasonable, with too great a passion for gambling (bk. xiv. c. xxi.). In the winter of 1135–36, Ralph had supported the regency of Constance's mother,
Alice Alice may refer to: * Alice (name), most often a feminine given name, but also used as a surname Literature * Alice (''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''), a character in books by Lewis Carroll * ''Alice'' series, children's and teen books by ...
. But Ralph couldn’t, however, support her attempt for an alliance with the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
, since the Treaty of Devol of 1108 forbade the patriarch of Antioch from being a non-Greek Christian. If the alliance was formed, the Byzantines would not recognize him as legitimate. He knew he had to replace Alice with Raymond before she could cement the alliance. When Raymond of Poitiers arrived before Antioch, Ralph forced him to sign an agreement whereby he would do homage to Ralph for the principality and in turn Ralph would marry him to Constance. Ralph then made Alice believe that Raymond came to Antioch to marry her instead of her eight-year-old daughter., whereupon she allowed him to enter Antioch and the patriarch married him to Constance. Constance was kidnapped from the palace, and Ralph of Domfront blessed her marriage to Raymond in the
cathedral A cathedral is a church (building), church that contains the of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, Annual conferences within Methodism, conference, or episcopate. Churches with the function of "cathedral" are usually s ...
. With the marriage, Raymond became the ruler of the principality, and in defeat, Alice left Antioch, now under the control of Raymond and Ralph., for Latakia. Ralph's precedent for making the prince do homage to him as patriarch was the case of the first prince, Bohemond I, who in 1099 did homage to the papal legate, Dagobert of Pisa. According to William of Tyre, the power-sharing arrangement in Antioch did not succeed:
the lord patriarch in his customary way behaved more arrogantly, believing himself superiro to the lord prince, and he was, indeed, deceived; for the prince thought it most shameul that he had exacted an oath of fealty from him and ... began to behave hostilely towards him and, dispensing with the oath he had taken, allied with his enemies.
Only open war with the Byzantine empire, whose efforts at alliance with Alice had been ruined by Ralph and Raymond's joint action, prevented the situation from devolving into civil war. The first years of Raymond of Poitiers and Ralph’s joint rule were spent in fighting the powerful
Byzantine Emperor The foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, which Fall of Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised s ...
John II Komnenos John II Komnenos or Comnenus (; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was List of Byzantine emperors, Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexio ...
, who had come south partly to recover Cilicia from Leo of Armenia, and to reassert his rights over Antioch and reinforce Byzantine claims to suzerainty over the Crusader States. These rights dated back to the Treaty of Devol of 1108, though the Byzantines had not been in a position to enforce them then. John II started his campaign by subduing Armenian Cilicia. In 1137 he conquered Tarsus,
Adana Adana is a large city in southern Turkey. The city is situated on the Seyhan River, inland from the northeastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. It is the administrative seat of the Adana Province, Adana province, and has a population of 1 81 ...
, and Mopsuestia from the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, and in 1138 Prince Leo I of Armenia and most of his family were brought as captives to
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
.J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'', 76 Leo would die in Constantinople on February 14, 1140. With Armenian Cilicia out of his way, the road was open for John to invade Antioch. In the summer of 1137, John invaded Antioch. Raymond sent pleas for aid to Fulk, while Ralph, knowing how the emperor had expelled the Latin churchmen from Cilicia, appealed to Innocent II for help. Raymond, hearing of Ralph’s action, responded by putting him in prison and, according to a Muslim source, Ibn al-Qalanisi, plundering his house. However it became too late for any aid to arrive. In August, Raymond paid homage to John. John demanded the unconditional surrender of Antioch and, after asking the permission of Fulk,
King of Jerusalem The king or queen of Jerusalem was the supreme ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, a Crusader state founded in Jerusalem by the Latin Church, Latin Catholic leaders of the First Crusade, when the city was Siege of Jerusalem (1099), conquered in ...
, Raymond of Poitiers agreed to surrender the city to John. The agreement, by which Raymond swore homage to John, was explicitly based on the Treaty of Devol, but went beyond it. Raymond, who was recognized as an imperial vassal for Antioch, promised the Emperor free entry to Antioch, and undertook to hand over the city in return for the cities of
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
,
Shaizar Shaizar or Shayzar (; in modern Arabic Saijar; Hellenistic name: Larissa in Syria, Λάρισσα εν Συρία in Greek language, Greek) is a town in northern Syria, administratively part of the Hama Governorate, located northwest of Hama. Near ...
,
Homs Homs ( ; ), known in pre-Islamic times as Emesa ( ; ), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level, above sea level and is located north of Damascus. Located on the Orontes River, Homs is ...
, and Hama as soon as these were conquered from the
Muslims Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
, cities which John planned to take in his planned campaign against the Zengids later.. Raymond would then rule the new conquests and Antioch would revert to direct imperial control. Raymond wasn’t too excited about this. Joscelin II of Edessa would also recognize himself as a vassal of the emperor.


Battle of Montferrand

In 1134 Zengi became involved in Artuqid affairs, allying with the emir Timurtash (son of Ilghazi) against Timurtash's cousin Rukn al-Dawla Da'ud. Zengi's real desires, however, lay to the south, in Damascus. In 1135 Zengi received an appeal for help from Shams ul-Mulk Isma'il, who had succeeded his father Buri as emir of Damascus, and who was in fear for his life from his own citizenry, who considered him a cruel tyrant. Ismail was willing to surrender the city to Zengi in order to restore peace. None of Isma'il's family or advisors wanted this, however, and Isma'il was murdered by his own mother, Zumurrud, to prevent him from turning over the city to Zengi's control. Isma'il was succeeded by his brother Shihab al-Din Mahmud. Zengi was not discouraged by this turn of events and arrived at Damascus anyway, still intending to seize it. The siege lasted for some time with no success on Zengi's part, so a truce was made and Shahib al-Din's brother Bahram-Shah was given as a hostage. At the same time, news of the siege had reached the caliph and Baghdad, and a messenger was sent with orders for Zengi to leave Damascus and take control of the governance of Iraq. The messenger was ignored, but Zengi gave up the siege, as per the terms of the truce with Shihab al-Din. On the way back to Aleppo, Zengi besieged Homs, whose governor had angered him, and Shihab al-Din responded to the city's call for help by sending Mu'in al-Din Unur to govern it. A Damascene mamluk, Bazawash led a regiment at
Baalbek Baalbek (; ; ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanon's Beqaa Valley, about northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. In 1998, the city had a population of 82,608. Most of the population consists of S ...
who murdered Yusuf ibn Firuz in 1136, and was then made chief minister by Shihab ed-Din Mahmud, atabeg of Damascus. Spurred on by Zengi’s successes, in March 1137, Bazawash, the mamluk commander of
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
, launched a military campaign against the County of Tripoli, reaching Mons Peregrinus near the town. Pons rode out of Tripoli to meet the enemy unprepared and suffered a defeat. He fled to the nearby mountains, but local Christians—according to Lewis, most probably Jacobites or
Nestorians Nestorianism is a term used in Christian theology and Church history to refer to several mutually related but doctrinary, doctrinarily distinct sets of teachings. The first meaning of the term is related to the original teachings of Christian t ...
—captured and handed him over to Bazawash, who had him killed on 25 March 1137. If it wasn’t for Bazawash’s reluctance to attack Tripoli after his victory, he may have been able to take it. His son, Raymond II, who inherited the County of Tripoli, and his retainers captured the local Christians’s settlements in the Mount Lebanon area and captured many of them. The captured men, women and children were taken to Tripoli where the majority were tortured and executed. William of Tyre remarked that Raymond's campaign against the local Christians provided "the first lessons of his martial courage". Zengi was not happy with Bazawash’s passiveness fighting the Crusaders, causing him to attack
Homs Homs ( ; ), known in pre-Islamic times as Emesa ( ; ), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level, above sea level and is located north of Damascus. Located on the Orontes River, Homs is ...
, then under the Damascene governor, Mu'in ad-Din Unur. However, Bazawash would retreat back to Baalbek. With the retreat of Bazawash, Raymond decided to attack Zengi, who was nearby besieging
Homs Homs ( ; ), known in pre-Islamic times as Emesa ( ; ), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level, above sea level and is located north of Damascus. Located on the Orontes River, Homs is ...
. Surprised by Raymond’s attack, Zengi lifted his siege and then moved to attack him. As Raymond approached, Zengi’s army marched out to meet him. Raymond then suddenly realized he couldn’t win this fight as he was heavily outnumbered and retreated to the castle of Montferrand. After Zengi laid siege to Montferrand, Raymond sent envoys to King Fulk of Jerusalem, his maternal uncle and brother-in-law, urging him to hurry to relieve the besieged fortress. Shortly after Fulk and his army crossed the frontier of the County of Tripoli, the envoys of Raymond of Poitiers, prince of Antioch, informed him that the Byzantine Emperor
John II Komnenos John II Komnenos or Comnenus (; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was List of Byzantine emperors, Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexio ...
had invaded Antioch. Fulk now faced a dilemma. Which ally should he help first? Raymond II of Tripoli against the Zengid Empire or Raymond of Poitiers against the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
? Fulk immediately held a council and decided that Montferrand should be helped first. When Fulk reached Montferrand, he and Raymond of Tripoli decided to launch an assault on Zengi's forces before marching to Antioch, because they thought they could easily defeat the atabeg. However, the sheer number of Zengids easily annihilated the Crusader force. Thousands of Christian soldiers were killed during the battle, and even more (including Raymond of Tripoli) were captured; Fulk and his retinue fled back to Montferrand. In the battle, the Crusaders also lost all of the baggage intended for Montferrand leaving them with no supplies. Zengi then resumed his siege of Montferrand while the imprisoned Franks appealed for aid to Antioch, Jerusalem, and Edessa, who answered the appeal. However when the Crusaders "...ran out of food they ate their horses, and then they were forced to ask for terms."Gabrieli, p 43 Zengi was also eager to come to terms. Although Fulk didn’t know it yet, his pleas for aid from the Crusader states were being answered. John II Komnenos and his two vassals, Joscelin and Raymond of Poitiers, began assembling a large army of Byzantines and Crusaders while large numbers of Christian pilgrims were rallied to join the fight. With this host approaching the castle, Zengi suddenly granted Fulk and the other besieged Crusaders terms. In return for their freedom and evacuation from the castle Zengi surrendered all of his prisoners, including Raymond. The Crusaders, unaware of the imminent arrival of the large relieving army, accepted Zengi's offer. The Franks never recovered Montferrand.


Byzantine Campaign in the Levant

After defeating the Crusaders at Montferrand, Zengi faced now one of the biggest threats to his rule he faced so far; the mighty
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
, under Emperor
John II Komnenos John II Komnenos or Comnenus (; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was List of Byzantine emperors, Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexio ...
. The
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
historian William of Tyre described John as short and unusually ugly, with eyes, hair and complexion so dark he was known as 'the Moor'. Yet despite his physical appearance, John was known as ''Kaloïōannēs'', "John the Good" or "John the Beautiful"; the epithet referred to his character. Both his parents were unusually pious and John surpassed them. Members of his court were expected to restrict their conversation to serious subjects only. The food served at the emperor's table was very frugal and John lectured courtiers who lived in excessive luxury. His speech was dignified, but he engaged in repartee on occasion. All accounts agree that he was a faithful husband to his wife, an unusual trait in a medieval ruler. Despite his personal austerity, John had a high conception of the imperial role and would appear in full ceremonial splendour when this was advantageous.Choniates, p. 27 John was famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign. He is considered an exceptional example of a moral ruler, at a time when cruelty was the norm. He is reputed never to have condemned anyone to death or mutilation. Charity was dispensed lavishly. For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine
Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ( ; ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoicism, Stoic philosopher. He was a member of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty, the last of the rulers later known as the Five Good Emperors ...
. By the example of his personal morality and piety he effected a notable improvement in the manners of his age. Descriptions of him and his actions indicate that he had great self-control and personal courage, and was an excellent strategist and general. John’s military genius was displayed from the start of his reign. Before John focused on affairs happening in the east as he was doing now, he successfully waged many wars with his western neighbors. He defeated the
Grand Principality of Serbia The Grand Principality of Serbia ( sr-Cyrl-Latn, Великожупанска Србија, Velikožupanska Srbija, separator=" / "), also known by the anachronistic exonym Raška (region), Rascia ( sr-Cyrl-Latn, Рашка, Raška, separator=" ...
,
Pechenegs The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks, , Middle Turkic languages, Middle Turkic: , , , , , , ka, პაჭანიკი, , , ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Pečenezi, separator=/, Печенези, also known as Pecheneg Turks were a semi-nomadic Turkic peopl ...
, and
Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946 and was a key part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1526-1918. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the Coro ...
. John’s power was so great as Raymond II of Tripoli, after he was freed by Zengi, he hastened northwards to pay homage to John, repeating the homage that his predecessor had given John's father in 1109. After John was finished with preparations, he launched his campaign against the Zengids on April 1, 1138. John’s army was largely composed of Byzantine regulars and also included a force of
Knights Templar The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, mainly known as the Knights Templar, was a Military order (religious society), military order of the Catholic Church, Catholic faith, and one of the most important military ord ...
and substantial contingents from his two vassals,
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
and Edessa. The Antiochene contingent was led by Raymond of Poitiers while the Edessan one was led by Joscelin II of Edessa. In February, all merchants and travellers from Aleppo and other Muslim towns were arrested to prevent them from reporting on the developing military preparations. The Byzantine-Crusader army crossed into enemy territory and occupied Ballat. On April 3 they arrived at
Biza'a B'zaah () is a town located east of the city of al-Bab in northern-central Aleppo Governorate, northwestern Syria. It is administratively part of Nahiya al-Bab in al-Bab District. The town is inhabited by Syrian Turkmen, Turkmen and had a populat ...
which held out for five days. A large amount of booty was plundered from the town, which was sent back to Antioch, though the convoy was attacked by a Muslim force and plundered in its turn. It had been hoped that
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
could be surprised. However, Imad ad-Din Zengi, was besieging nearby Hama, which was held by a Damascene garrison. He had enough warning of the Emperor's operations to quickly reinforce Aleppo. Zengi rushed to obtain reinforcements before the arrival of the allied army; he received a reinforcement of cavalry, infantry, and specialist archers just in time. The Byzantines were aware of the strategic importance of Aleppo. One of the objectives of their Syrian campaign was to create a Christian buffer state centered on Aleppo but also including
Shaizar Shaizar or Shayzar (; in modern Arabic Saijar; Hellenistic name: Larissa in Syria, Λάρισσα εν Συρία in Greek language, Greek) is a town in northern Syria, administratively part of the Hama Governorate, located northwest of Hama. Near ...
,
Homs Homs ( ; ), known in pre-Islamic times as Emesa ( ; ), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level, above sea level and is located north of Damascus. Located on the Orontes River, Homs is ...
and Hama. Due to the dangers involved the Byzantines were content to let the Franks own the buffer state of the hinterlands, presumably under imperial suzerainty. The Byzantines were camped on Queiq river and launched attacks on the south and west of Aleppo on April 19 to size out the garrison's strength and intimidate them into surrendering with the size and aggression of the besieging force. Instead the reverse happened, large numbers of the Muslim militia made a sortie against the Byzantines and emerged victorious from the skirmishing. One of the senior Byzantine commanders was wounded during the fight. Following their repulse, the Christian army departed in search of easier pickings. The siege is hardly mentioned in Christian chronicles, and while Aleppo might have been viewed as a target if its defenses had been weak, there is evidence that the city of
Shaizar Shaizar or Shayzar (; in modern Arabic Saijar; Hellenistic name: Larissa in Syria, Λάρισσα εν Συρία in Greek language, Greek) is a town in northern Syria, administratively part of the Hama Governorate, located northwest of Hama. Near ...
was the real goal of the allied army. However, the failure of the Siege of Aleppo angered John. John subsequently took the Antiochene border fortresses which Zengi took from Antioch in his 1135 Campaign against Antioch.These fortresses included Ballat, Bizaah, Athareb, Maarat al-Numan, and Kafartab were taken by assault. After taking all these fortresses, the road to the main goal of John’s campaign,
Shaizar Shaizar or Shayzar (; in modern Arabic Saijar; Hellenistic name: Larissa in Syria, Λάρισσα εν Συρία in Greek language, Greek) is a town in northern Syria, administratively part of the Hama Governorate, located northwest of Hama. Near ...
, was open. Although the rulers of the city, Munqidhites, led by
Sultan Sultan (; ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be use ...
, were neutral, Shaizar had a strategic position which the Byzantines recognized. The Crusader princes were suspicious of each other and of John, and none wanted the others to gain from participating in the campaign. Raymond also wanted to hold on to Antioch, which was a Christian city; the attraction of lordship over a city like Shaizar or Aleppo, with a largely Muslim population and more exposed to Zengid attack, must have been slight. With the lukewarm interest his allies had in the prosecution of the siege, the Emperor was soon left with little active help from them. Following some initial skirmishes, John II organised his
army An army, ground force or land force is an armed force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the land-based military branch, service branch or armed service of a nation or country. It may also include aviation assets by ...
into three divisions based on the nationalities of his soldiery: Macedonians (native Byzantines); 'Kelts' (meaning
Normans The Normans (Norman language, Norman: ''Normaunds''; ; ) were a population arising in the medieval Duchy of Normandy from the intermingling between Norsemen, Norse Viking settlers and locals of West Francia. The Norse settlements in West Franc ...
and other
Franks file:Frankish arms.JPG, Aristocratic Frankish burial items from the Merovingian dynasty The Franks ( or ; ; ) were originally a group of Germanic peoples who lived near the Rhine river, Rhine-river military border of Germania Inferior, which wa ...
); and
Pechenegs The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks, , Middle Turkic languages, Middle Turkic: , , , , , , ka, პაჭანიკი, , , ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Pečenezi, separator=/, Печенези, also known as Pecheneg Turks were a semi-nomadic Turkic peopl ...
(Turkic steppe nomads). Each division was equipped with its characteristic arms and equipment, and was paraded before the city in order to overawe the defenders. Although John fought hard for the Christian cause during the campaign in Syria, his allies Raymond of Poitiers and Joscelin II of Edessa remained in their camp playing
dice A die (: dice, sometimes also used as ) is a small, throwable object with marked sides that can rest in multiple positions. Dice are used for generating random values, commonly as part of tabletop games, including dice games, board games, ro ...
and feasting instead of helping to press the siege. Due to their example, the morale of their troops was undermined. The Emperor's reproaches could only goad the two princes into perfunctory and fitful action. Latin and Muslim sources describe John's energy and personal courage in prosecuting the siege. Conspicuous in his golden helmet, John was active in encouraging his troops, supervising the siege engines and consoling the wounded. The walls of Shaizar were battered by the trebuchets of the impressive Byzantine siege train. The Emir's nephew, the poet, writer and diplomat Usama ibn Munqidh, recorded the devastation wreaked by the Byzantine artillery, which could smash a whole house with a single missile. The city was taken, but the
citadel A citadel is the most fortified area of a town or city. It may be a castle, fortress, or fortified center. The term is a diminutive of ''city'', meaning "little city", because it is a smaller part of the city of which it is the defensive core. ...
, protected by its cliffs and the courage of its defenders, defied assault. Tardily, Zengi had assembled a relief army and it moved towards Shaizar. The relief army was smaller than the Christian army but John was reluctant to leave his siege engines in order to march out to meet it, and he did not trust his allies. At this point, Sultan ibn Munqidh, the Emir of Shaizar, offered to become John's vassal, pay a large indemnity and pay yearly tribute. Also offered was a table studded with jewels and an impressive carved cross said to have been made for
Constantine the Great Constantine I (27 February 27222 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He played a Constantine the Great and Christianity, pivotal ro ...
, which had been captured from Romanos IV Diogenes by the Seljuk Turks at the
Battle of Manzikert The Battle of Manzikert or Malazgirt was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Empire on 26 August 1071 near Manzikert, Iberia (theme), Iberia (modern Malazgirt in Muş Province, Turkey). The decisive defeat of the Byzantine army ...
. John, disgusted by the behaviour of his allies, reluctantly accepted the offer. On 21 May, the siege was raised. Zengi's troops skirmished with the retreating Christians, but did not dare to actively impede the army's march In May 1138, John II returned to Antioch, where Ralph, released from prison, presided over the ceremony in the cathedral of St. Peter that marked the end of the Byzantine campaign. His change of fortune was probably the result of the papal encyclical, since John required Innocent's assistance in building up an anti-Sicilian alliance. Joscelin and Raymond conspired to delay the promised handover of Antioch's citadel to the emperor. As part of their plan, Count Joscelin II of Edessa incited a riot of Franks in the city against John and the local Greek community, but full warfare between the Franks and Byzantines was avoided. However, this caused being besieged in the palace by the Antiochene mob. This and news of a raid by the Anatolian Seljuks on Cilicia, and Raymond not replying to his request for control of the citadel, John abandoned his demand for control of the citadel. He insisted, however, on a renewal of Raymond’s and Joscelin's oaths of fealty. John told them that he would return with his army to implement his treaties with them. He then left Antioch intending to punish the Seljuk sultan Mas'ud (r. 1116–1156) and subsequently to return to
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
. The events of the campaign underlined that the suzerainty the Byzantine emperor claimed over the Crusader states, for all the prestige it offered, had limited practical advantages. The Latins enjoyed the security that a distant imperial connection gave them when they were threatened by the Muslim powers of Syria. However, when Byzantine military might was directly manifested in the region, their own self-interest and continued political independence was of greater importance to them than any possible advantage that might be gained for the Christian cause in the Levant by co-operation with the Emperor.


Zengid Campaign Against Damascus

In 1138, Shihab ad-Din appointed the atabeg (governor) of Homs, Mu'in ad-Din Unur atabeg of Damascus and gave him the title '' Isfahsalar''. In May 1138 Zengi came to an agreement with Damascus. He married Zumurrud Khatun, the widowed wife of Taj al-Muluk Buri, Shihab ad-Din's mother, and the same woman who had murdered her son Ismail. Zengi received Homs as her dowry. Unur, who was governor of that city, was given the castle of Montferrand in place of Homs. On June 22, 1139, Shihab ad-Din was assassinated in Damascus; Jamal ad-Din, emir of
Baalbek Baalbek (; ; ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanon's Beqaa Valley, about northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. In 1998, the city had a population of 82,608. Most of the population consists of S ...
, was chosen as his successor, and Mu'in ad-Din was chosen to govern Baalbek in his absence. When Zengi heard of the death of his wife’s surviving son, Shihab al-Din, he decided to use Burid
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
’s weakness to his advantage. Zengi launched a campaign against Damascus with the excuse of avenging his stepson’s death. He started his campaign by besieging
Baalbek Baalbek (; ; ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanon's Beqaa Valley, about northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. In 1998, the city had a population of 82,608. Most of the population consists of S ...
. Unur was in charge of the defenses of Baalbek when Zengi besieged it. Zengi besieged it with 14 catapults, which forced the defenders of
Baalbek Baalbek (; ; ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanon's Beqaa Valley, about northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. In 1998, the city had a population of 82,608. Most of the population consists of S ...
to come to terms. The city of
Baalbek Baalbek (; ; ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanon's Beqaa Valley, about northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. In 1998, the city had a population of 82,608. Most of the population consists of S ...
offered to surrender only if Zengi swore on the Koran to spare its defenders. However, when
Baalbek Baalbek (; ; ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanon's Beqaa Valley, about northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. In 1998, the city had a population of 82,608. Most of the population consists of S ...
surrendered, Zengi didn’t not keep his word. He ordered that the defenders be crucified. Unlike
Saladin Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub ( – 4 March 1193), commonly known as Saladin, was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Hailing from a Kurdish family, he was the first sultan of both Egypt and Syria. An important figure of the Third Crusade, h ...
at
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
in 1187, Zengi did not keep his word to protect his captives at
Baalbek Baalbek (; ; ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanon's Beqaa Valley, about northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. In 1998, the city had a population of 82,608. Most of the population consists of S ...
in 1139. According to Ibn al-‘Adim, Zengi "had sworn to the people of the citadel with strong oaths and on the Qur’an and divorcing (his wives). When they came down from the citadel he betrayed them, flayed its governor and hanged the rest." Zengi most likely broke his oath on the Koran to break the spirit of the Damascenes. However, it increased the resolve of Damascus, who didn’t wish to be conquered by such a man who breaks his oath to the Koran. It also stained Zengi’s reputation as champion of
Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
. Zengi granted Baalbek to his Kurdish lieutenant Najm al-Din Ayyub, father of
Saladin Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub ( – 4 March 1193), commonly known as Saladin, was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Hailing from a Kurdish family, he was the first sultan of both Egypt and Syria. An important figure of the Third Crusade, h ...
. Acting as regent for Jamal al-Din, Mu'in al-Din Unur used the massacre of
Baalbek Baalbek (; ; ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanon's Beqaa Valley, about northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. In 1998, the city had a population of 82,608. Most of the population consists of S ...
to his advantage, uniting the Damascene populace and court against Zengi. To end the siege, Unur started negotiations with Fulk of Jerusalem against the Zengids. In exchange for Banias, Unur offered an alliance against Zengi. In an attempt to help heal the scars of the disastrous defeat at Montferrand, Fulk allied with Damascus to repel Zengi. Not wanting to get stuck between Jerusalem and Damascus, Zengi abandoned his siege, but took Banias from the Damascenes before leaving for his territory. After Zengi abandoned his siege of Damascus, Jamal al-Din died of a disease and was succeeded by his son Mujir al-Din Abaq, with Mu'in al-Din Unur remaining as regent. But due to Mujir al-Din’s young age, Unur was basically ruler of Damascus in all but in name. Fulk and Unur then joined armies and then besieged the fort of Banias together. The Zengid garrison in Banias attempted to divert the Crusader-Damascene army away from the siege by raiding Crusader territory as far as Tyre. However, as the Zengids were raiding, they ran into Raymond of Poitiers's Antiochene army, who had come to assist Fulk in the siege. A short battle happened where the Zengid troops were routed. Banias was now almost undefended. After the victory, Raymond joined Unur and Fulk and they all captured Banias. Unur subsequently offered 20,000 pieces of
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
per month to pay for their expenses. When it was captured, Unur handed it over to Fulk and returned to Damascus. A more thorough alliance, to protect Damascus against Zengi, was negotiated during a visit by Mu'in ad-Din to
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
, accompanied by the future chronicler Usamah ibn Munqidh. Since Banias was to the north of Lake Tiberias, its capture secured the northern frontier of the
Kingdom of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem, also known as the Crusader Kingdom, was one of the Crusader states established in the Levant immediately after the First Crusade. It lasted for almost two hundred years, from the accession of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1 ...
. Fulk also strengthened the kingdom's southern border. His butler Paganus built the fortress of Kerak to the east of the
Dead Sea The Dead Sea (; or ; ), also known by #Names, other names, is a landlocked salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east, the Israeli-occupied West Bank to the west and Israel to the southwest. It lies in the endorheic basin of the Jordan Rift Valle ...
. To help give the kingdom access to the
Red Sea The Red Sea is a sea inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. Its connection to the ocean is in the south, through the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait and the Gulf of Aden. To its north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and th ...
, Fulk had Blanchegarde, Ibelin, and other forts built in the south-west to overpower the
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
ian fortress at Ascalon. This city was a base from which the Egyptian
Fatimids The Fatimid Caliphate (; ), also known as the Fatimid Empire, was a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries CE under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty, Fatimids, an Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty. Spanning a large area of North Africa ...
launched frequent raids on the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Fulk wisely sought to neutralise this threat. Also, the construction of more forts in the Transjordan Region led to frequent raids against caravans and people going on
Hajj Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...
to
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
. After the departure of John, there followed a struggle between Raymond of Poitiers and the
patriarch The highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Roman Catholic Church (above major archbishop and primate), the Hussite Church, Church of the East, and some Independent Catholic Churches are termed patriarchs (and ...
Ralph of Domfront. Raymond was annoyed by the homage which he had been forced to pay to the patriarch in 1135 and the dubious validity of the patriarch's election offered a handle for opposition. Eventually Raymond triumphed, and the patriarch was deposed in 1139. Raymond II of Tripoli granted several settlements to the Knights Hospitallers along the eastern borders of his county in 1142. His grant included "the fortress of the Kurds" which developed into the important Crusader castle of
Krak des Chevaliers Krak des Chevaliers (; , ; or , ; from , ) is a medieval castle in Syria and one of the most important preserved medieval castles in the world. The site was first inhabited in the 11th century by Kurds, Kurdish troops garrisoned there by ...
during the following decades. He also transferred his rights to Montferrand and Rafaniya, both seized by Zengi in 1137, to the Hospitallers if they could recapture them. When establishing a military order on the eastern borderland, Raymond only wanted to secure the defence of his county, but his magnanimous grant laid the foundation of an almost independent ecclesiastic state. After his unsuccessful campaigns in the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
, in early 1142 Emperor
John II Komnenos John II Komnenos or Comnenus (; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was List of Byzantine emperors, Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexio ...
campaigned against the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum of Iconium to secure his lines of communication through Attalia. During this campaign his eldest son and co-emperor
Alexios Alexius is the Latinization (literature), Latinized form of the given name Alexios (, polytonic , "defender", cf. Alexander), especially common in the Byzantine Empire. The female form is Alexia (given name), Alexia () and its variants such as Ales ...
died of a fever. Having secured his route, John embarked on a new expedition into the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
determined to reduce the Principality of Antioch to direct imperial rule. This expedition included a planned pilgrimage to Jerusalem on which he intended to take his army. King Fulk of Jerusalem, fearing that the emperor's presence with overwhelming military force would constrain him to make an act of homage and formally recognise Byzantine suzerainty over his kingdom, begged the emperor to bring only a modest escort. Fulk cited the inability of his largely barren kingdom to support the passage of a substantial army.J. Harris, ''Byzantium and The Crusades'', p. 86 This lukewarm response resulted in John II deciding to postpone his pilgrimage. John descended rapidly on northern Syria, forcing Joscelin II of Edessa to render hostages, including his daughter, as a guarantee of his good behavior. He then advanced on
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
demanding that the city and its citadel be surrendered to him. Raymond of Poitiers played for time, putting the proposal to the vote of the Antiochene general assembly. John, though he ravaged the neighborhood of Antioch, was unable to effect anything against him. With the season well advanced John decided to take his army into winter quarters in Cilicia, proposing to renew his attack on Antioch the following year. Having prepared his army for a renewed attack on
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
, John amused himself by hunting wild boar on Mount Taurus in Cilicia, where he accidentally cut himself on the hand with a poisoned arrow. John initially ignored the wound and it became infected. He died a number of days after the accident, on 8 April 1143, probably of septicaemia. John's final action as emperor was to choose Manuel, the younger of his surviving sons, to be his successor. John is recorded as citing two main reasons for choosing Manuel over his older brother
Isaac Isaac ( ; ; ; ; ; ) is one of the three patriarchs (Bible), patriarchs of the Israelites and an important figure in the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and the Baháʼí Faith. Isaac first appears in the Torah, in wh ...
: Isaac's irascibility, and the courage that Manuel had shown on campaign at Neocaesarea. Raymond of Poitiers felt complacent when dealing with the Byzantines after John’s campaign of 1142. In late 1143 the court was at
Acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...
enjoying a period of peace. On 7 November 1143, Melisende expressed a wish to have a picnic. While they were riding in the countryside, Fulk galloped off in pursuit of a hare. His horse stumbled and threw him off, and the heavy saddle struck him on the head. He was carried unconscious to Acre, where he died a few days later. He was buried in the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, also known as the Church of the Resurrection, is a fourth-century church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, Old City of Jerusalem. The church is the seat of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchat ...
in Jerusalem. Melisende made a public demonstration of grief and then proceeded to take full charge of the government. There was no royal election because the joint reign initiated in 1131 continued with Melisende and her son, Baldwin III. Baldwin III was 13 years old when his father Fulk died in a hunting accident in 1143. Melisende, who had been
consecrated Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects (a ...
, anointed, and crowned in 1131, underwent a second coronation on
Christmas Christmas is an annual festival commemorating Nativity of Jesus, the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a Religion, religious and Culture, cultural celebration among billions of people Observance of Christmas by coun ...
1143, this time together with Baldwin III of Jerusalem, who was also consecrated and anointed on this occasion. The rites were performed by the patriarch, William of Messines. All power was in Melisende's hands; Baldwin was 13 at the time and Melisende became his guardian. The queen is commonly said to have acted as her son's
regent In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...
, but neither she nor the chronicler William of Tyre saw her rule as a regency. Citing William's statement that royal power came to Melisende through hereditary right, Hamilton concludes that she was "not a regent but the
queen regnant A queen regnant (: queens regnant) is a female monarch, equivalent in rank, title and position to a king. She reigns ''suo jure'' (in her own right) over a realm known as a kingdom; as opposed to a queen consort, who is married to a reigning ...
". Baldwin started issuing charters in 1144 at the latest, when he issued one without reference to Melisende; henceforth all were issued jointly by the mother and son, leading Mayer to believe that Melisende forbade that any charters be issued in her son's name only. Yet Baldwin showed little interest in the intricacies of governance.Barker, Ernest (1911). " Baldwin III". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica.'' 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 246–247. Most of the burden thus fell on Melisende of Jerusalem, who had to deal with the emerging Zengid raids and invasions and her squabbling Crusader allies in Tripoli, Antioch, and Jerusalem. With a woman and a child ruling Jerusalem, the political situation was somewhat tense; the northern crusader states of Tripoli,
Antioch Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
, and Edessa increasingly asserted their independence, and there was no king to impose the suzerainty of Jerusalem as Baldwin II or Fulk had done. In the Muslim world, Zengi ruled northern
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
from the cities of
Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
and
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
, and desired to add
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
in the south to his control. Melisende's first action, as had been her husband's or of any contemporary ruler, was to appoint supporters to the kingdom's offices. As a woman, Melisende could not command the army. She appointed her first cousin Manasses of Hierges, who had recently arrived in the kingdom, to conduct military affairs in her name as
constable A constable is a person holding a particular office, most commonly in law enforcement. The office of constable can vary significantly in different jurisdictions. ''Constable'' is commonly the rank of an officer within a police service. Other peo ...
. By choosing Manasses rather than empowering one of her subjects, Melisende ensured the preservation of royal authority. Besides Manasses, the queen's inner circle comprised the lord of Nablus, Philip of Milly; the prince of Galilee, Elinand of Tiberias; and the viscount, Rohard the Elder. Philip's family had been undermined early in Fulk's reign, and Barber believes that this may explain Philip's loyalty to Melisende. Elinand commanded more knights than any other lord in the kingdom. Rohard had incurred the queen's wrath in the early 1130s by supporting her husband's attempt to exclude her, but he was a key figure in the city of Jerusalem and, apparently, both were content to make peace. Through the support of Philip, Elinand, and Rohard, Melisende controlled Jerusalem and the regions of
Samaria Samaria (), the Hellenized form of the Hebrew name Shomron (), is used as a historical and Hebrew Bible, biblical name for the central region of the Land of Israel. It is bordered by Judea to the south and Galilee to the north. The region is ...
and Galilee, all of which contained parts of the royal domain. However, immediately after his coronation, Baldwin III sought to assert himself in warfare, the one field in which he had the advantage over his mother, and in 1144 he quelled a revolt at Wadi Musa.


Fall of Edessa

Meanwhile to the north, Joscelin II of Edessa and Raymond of Poitiers were freed from Byzantine domination with the death of
John II Komnenos John II Komnenos or Comnenus (; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was List of Byzantine emperors, Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexio ...
. This enabled Raymond to invade Byzantine Cilicia and even demand the cession of some Cilician towns from Emperor
Manuel I Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos (; 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180), Latinized as Comnenus, also called Porphyrogenitus (; " born in the purple"), was a Byzantine emperor of the 12th century who reigned over a crucial turning point in the history o ...
, who had succeeded John. Then, Raymond decided to attack Zengid
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
, agreeing to attack the city in a joint attack with Joscelin II of Edessa. Initially Joscelin followed the agreement and marched for
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
. However, Joscelin changed his mind in the middle of his march to Aleppo, and changed course for his army to go back home. This angered Raymond, who felt betrayed with the Count of Edessa, starting an animosity between the two neighbors. Raymond spoke openly about his disdain with Joscelin. Joscelin had also quarreled with the
Count of Tripoli The count of Tripoli was the ruler of the County of Tripoli, a crusader state from 1102 through to 1289. Of the four major crusader states in the Levant, Tripoli was created last. The history of the counts of Tripoli began with Raymond IV, Coun ...
, Raymond II of Tripoli. With the deaths of
Emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
John II Komnenos John II Komnenos or Comnenus (; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was List of Byzantine emperors, Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexio ...
of the Eastern Roman Empire and
King King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
Fulk I of Jerusalem, who were his protectors, and his feuds with his Crusader neighbors, the Principality of Antioch and the County of Tripoli, Joscelin II of Edessa left his
County of Edessa The County of Edessa (Latin: ''Comitatus Edessanus'') was a 12th-century Crusader state in Upper Mesopotamia. Its seat was the city of Edessa (modern Şanlıurfa, Turkey). In the late Byzantine period, Edessa became the centre of intellec ...
with no powerful allies. Imad al-Din Zengi, atabeg of
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
and
Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
, was observing the situation. After the death of
John II Komnenos John II Komnenos or Comnenus (; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was List of Byzantine emperors, Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" (), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexio ...
, his successor
Manuel I Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos (; 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180), Latinized as Comnenus, also called Porphyrogenitus (; " born in the purple"), was a Byzantine emperor of the 12th century who reigned over a crucial turning point in the history o ...
wasn’t interested in the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
, ending the Byzantine threat to the region. Meanwhile, Fulk I of Jerusalem’s death left the
Outremer The Crusader states, or Outremer, were four Catholic polities established in the Levant region and southeastern Anatolia from 1098 to 1291. Following the principles of feudalism, the foundation for these polities was laid by the First Crusade ...
weak and divided, seen by Joscelin’s feuds with his Crusader allies. As mentioned before, this left Edessa with no allies to help them in the case of an invasion. So Zengi prepared for an offensive against the
Crusader States The Crusader states, or Outremer, were four Catholic polities established in the Levant region and southeastern Anatolia from 1098 to 1291. Following the principles of feudalism, the foundation for these polities was laid by the First Crusade ...
. Oghuz Turks from all over the Great Seljuk Empire amassed in Mosul in preparation for an offensive. But where would Zengi lead the army? Zengi chose Edessa. After the
First Crusade The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the Middle Ages. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Muslim conquest ...
and the minor Crusade of 1101, there were three
crusader states The Crusader states, or Outremer, were four Catholic polities established in the Levant region and southeastern Anatolia from 1098 to 1291. Following the principles of feudalism, the foundation for these polities was laid by the First Crusade ...
established in the east: the
Kingdom of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem, also known as the Crusader Kingdom, was one of the Crusader states established in the Levant immediately after the First Crusade. It lasted for almost two hundred years, from the accession of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1 ...
, the Principality of Antioch and the
County of Edessa The County of Edessa (Latin: ''Comitatus Edessanus'') was a 12th-century Crusader state in Upper Mesopotamia. Its seat was the city of Edessa (modern Şanlıurfa, Turkey). In the late Byzantine period, Edessa became the centre of intellec ...
. A fourth, the County of Tripoli, was established in 1109. Edessa was the most northerly of these, and also the weakest and least populated; as such, it was subject to frequent attacks from the surrounding Muslim states ruled by the
Artuqids The Artuqid dynasty (alternatively Artukid, Ortoqid, or Ortokid; Old Anatolian Turkish: , , plural, pl. ; ; ) was established in 1102 as a Turkish people, Turkish Anatolian beyliks, Anatolian Beylik (Principality) of the Seljuk Empire. It formed a ...
, Danishmendids and
Seljuk Turks The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljukids ( ; , ''Saljuqian'',) alternatively spelled as Saljuqids or Seljuk Turks, was an Oghuz Turks, Oghuz Turkic, Sunni Muslim dynasty that gradually became Persianate society, Persianate and contributed to Turco-Persi ...
. This can be seen by observing the many conflicts Edessa had with their neighbors. Baldwin II, then count of Edessa, and future count Joscelin of Courtenay were taken captive after their defeat at the Battle of Harran in 1104. Baldwin and Joscelin were both captured a second time in 1122, and although Edessa recovered somewhat after the Battle of Azaz in 1125, Joscelin was killed in battle in 1131 fighting the Danishmendids. There hasn’t been a single year in the County of Edessa’s history when it hasn’t been attacked by one of its Muslim neighbors. Edessa’s weakness and vulnerability made it the target of Zengi’s attack. In 1144, Joscelin was able to make an alliance with Kara Arslan, the Artuqid ruler of
Diyarbakır Diyarbakır is the largest Kurdish-majority city in Turkey. It is the administrative center of Diyarbakır Province. Situated around a high plateau by the banks of the Tigris river on which stands the historic Diyarbakır Fortress, it is ...
, the great-nephew of the famed Ilghazi. Joscelin made this alliance to combat the growing power and influence of Zengi. So when Zengi sent some Turkish raiders against Diyarbakir, Joscelin immediately marched out of Edessa with almost his entire army to support Kara Arslan against
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
. Due to this, Edessa was almost completely undefended. Zengi pounced on the opportunity and hurried north to besiege Edessa, arriving on November 28. The city had been warned of his arrival and was prepared for a siege, but there was little they could do while Joscelin and the army were elsewhere. Gibb, Hamilton A. R. (1969).
Zengi and the Fall of Edessa
. In Setton, K. ''A History of the Crusades: Volume I''. pp. 449–462.
The Christian population of Edessa attempted to organize themselves to defend the city. The defence of the city was led by the Latin Archbishop of Edessa Hugh of Edessa, the Armenian Bishop of Edessa John, and the Syriac Bishop of Edessa Basil bar Shumna. All of these bishops ensured that the Edessans put their differences aside and defend the city. The Armenian bishop John and the Syriac bishop Basil ensured that no native Christians would desert to Zengi. The Edessans’ goal was to buy as much time as possible for Joscelin to return to their aid. Zengi surrounded the entire city and his experienced engineers built siege engines to bombard the walls. Zengi also began to mine the walls, while his forces were joined by Kurdish and Oghuz Turkish reinforcements. When Joscelin II of Edessa heard of the siege, he at first rushed to Edessa’s aid. However, on the way back to Edessa, he changed his mind and changed his army’s course for Turbessel. This decision brought him heavy scrutiny from many Edessans but Joscelin did this knowing that he could never dislodge Zengi without help from the other crusader states. In Jerusalem, Queen Melisende responded to Joscelin's appeal by holding a council to decide what to do. The council decided to send an army led by Manasses of Hierges, Philip of Milly, and Elinand of Bures. Melisende probably didn't send Baldwin III because Melisende resented his success at Wadi Musa; it is also possible that the queen did not wish to see her son gain a reputation as a military leader lest it lead to him becoming a threat to her political leadership. In any case, the army was too far away and they would arrive too late. Raymond of Poitiers, who was close enough to Edessa to do something, ignored the call for help , as his army was already occupied against the Byzantine Empire in Cilicia and he was against Joscelin after their many feuds. In Turbessel, Joscelin prepared for a counterattack against the Zengids. Zengi’s miners dug closer and closer to Edessa’s walls. The inhabitants of Edessa resisted as much as they could but had no experience in siege warfare; the city's numerous towers remained undefended. They also did not know counter-mining, and part of the wall near the Gate of the Hours collapsed on December 24,
Christmas Eve Christmas Eve is the evening or entire day before Christmas, the festival commemorating nativity of Jesus, the birth of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus. Christmas Day is observance of Christmas by country, observed around the world, and Christma ...
. The Edessan inhabitants attempted to fight off the Zengids, but the number of Zengids flooding into the city ended up breaking the defence. Zengi's troops rushed into the city, killing all those who were unable to flee to the citadel. Thousands more were suffocated or trampled to death in the panic, including Archbishop Hugh. Zengi ordered his men to stop the massacre of the native Christians. They were allowed to live freely while Zengi ordered the massacre of all Franks and Latins while all the Latin prisoners that he had taken were executed. The citadel was handed over on December 26. One of Zengi's commanders, Zayn ad-Din Ali Kutchuk, was appointed governor, while Bishop Basil, apparently willing to give his loyalty to whoever ruled the city, was recognized as leader of the Christian population. In January 1145, Zengi captured Saruj and besieged Birejik, but the army of Jerusalem had finally arrived and joined with Joscelin. Zengi also heard of trouble in Mosul and rushed back to take control. The Islamic world praised him as a "defender of the faith" and ''al-Malik al-Mansur'', the victorious king. Ibn al-Qaysarani praised his victory in a rhyming panegyric. Zengi did not pursue an attack on the remaining territory of Edessa or the Principality of Antioch, as was feared. Joscelin II continued to rule the remnants of the county from Turbessel, but little by little the rest of the territory was captured by Muslims or sold to the Byzantines. Zengi was assassinated by a slave in 1146 and was succeeded in Aleppo by his son Nur ad-Din.


Papal bull and French plans

The news of the fall of Edessa was brought back to Europe first by pilgrims early in 1145, and then by embassies from Antioch, Jerusalem and Armenia. Bishop Hugh of Jabala reported the news to Pope Eugene III, who issued the bull ' on 1 December, calling for a second crusade. Hugh also told the Pope of an eastern Christian king, who, it was hoped, would bring relief to the crusader states: this is the first documented mention of
Prester John Prester John () was a mythical Christian patriarch, presbyter, and king. Stories popular in Europe in the 12th to the 17th centuries told of a Church of the East, Nestorian patriarch and king who was said to rule over a Christian state, Christian ...
. Eugene did not control Rome and lived instead at
Viterbo Viterbo (; Central Italian, Viterbese: ; ) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) in the Lazio region of Italy, the Capital city, capital of the province of Viterbo. It conquered and absorbed the neighboring town of Ferento (see Ferentium) in ...
, but nevertheless the Second Crusade was meant to be more organized and centrally controlled than the First: the armies would be led by the strongest kings of Europe and a route would be planned.


Saint Bernard of Clairvaux

The Pope commissioned French abbot
Bernard of Clairvaux Bernard of Clairvaux, Cistercians, O.Cist. (; 109020 August 1153), venerated as Saint Bernard, was an abbot, Mysticism, mystic, co-founder of the Knights Templar, and a major leader in the reform of the Benedictines through the nascent Cistercia ...
to preach the Second Crusade, and granted the same
indulgence In the teaching of the Catholic Church, an indulgence (, from , 'permit') is "a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for (forgiven) sins". The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' describes an indulgence as "a remission bef ...
s for it which Pope Urban II had accorded to the First Crusade.Father Marie Gildas (1907). " St. Bernard of Clairvaux". In ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company. A
parliament In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...
was convoked at Vezelay in Burgundy in 1146, and Bernard preached before the assembly on 31 March.
Louis VII of France Louis VII (1120 – 18 September 1180), called the Younger or the Young () to differentiate him from his father Louis VI, was King of France from 1137 to 1180. His first marriage was to Duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine, one of the wealthiest and ...
, his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and the princes and lords present prostrated themselves at the feet of Bernard to receive the pilgrims' cross. Bernard then passed into Germany, and the reported miracles which multiplied almost at his every step undoubtedly contributed to the success of his mission. At Speyer, Conrad III of Germany and his nephew, later Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick Barbarossa Frederick Barbarossa (December 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known as Frederick I (; ), was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death in 1190. He was elected King of Germany in Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March 115 ...
, received the cross from the hand of Bernard. Pope Eugene came in person to France to encourage the enterprise. For all his overmastering zeal, Bernard was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor. As in the First Crusade, the preaching inadvertently led to attacks on Jews; a fanatical French monk named Rudolf was apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the
Rhineland The Rhineland ( ; ; ; ) is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly Middle Rhine, its middle section. It is the main industrial heartland of Germany because of its many factories, and it has historic ties to the Holy ...
,
Cologne Cologne ( ; ; ) is the largest city of the States of Germany, German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the List of cities in Germany by population, fourth-most populous city of Germany with nearly 1.1 million inhabitants in the city pr ...
,
Mainz Mainz (; #Names and etymology, see below) is the capital and largest city of the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate, and with around 223,000 inhabitants, it is List of cities in Germany by population, Germany's 35th-largest city. It lies in ...
,
Worms The World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) is a taxonomic database that aims to provide an authoritative and comprehensive catalogue and list of names of marine organisms. Content The content of the registry is edited and maintained by scien ...
and
Speyer Speyer (, older spelling ; ; ), historically known in English as Spires, is a city in Rhineland-Palatinate in the western part of the Germany, Federal Republic of Germany with approximately 50,000 inhabitants. Located on the left bank of the r ...
, with Rudolf claiming Jews were not contributing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land. Bernard; Arnold I, the Archbishop of Cologne; and Henry I, the Archbishop of Mainz, were vehemently opposed to these attacks, and so Bernard traveled from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problem and quiet the mobs. Bernard then found Rudolf in Mainz and was able to silence him, returning him to his monastery.


Reconquista in Iberia

In the spring of 1147, the Pope authorized the expansion of the crusade into the
Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula ( ), also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in south-western Europe. Mostly separated from the rest of the European landmass by the Pyrenees, it includes the territories of peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal, comprisin ...
, in the context of the
Reconquista The ''Reconquista'' (Spanish language, Spanish and Portuguese language, Portuguese for ) or the fall of al-Andalus was a series of military and cultural campaigns that European Christian Reconquista#Northern Christian realms, kingdoms waged ag ...
. He also authorized Alfonso VII of León and Castile to equate his campaigns against the Moors with the rest of the Second Crusade. In May 1147, the first contingents of crusaders left from Dartmouth in England for the
Holy Land The term "Holy Land" is used to collectively denote areas of the Southern Levant that hold great significance in the Abrahamic religions, primarily because of their association with people and events featured in the Bible. It is traditionall ...
. Bad weather forced the ships to stop on the Portuguese coast, at the northern city of
Porto Porto (), also known in English language, English as Oporto, is the List of cities in Portugal, second largest city in Portugal, after Lisbon. It is the capital of the Porto District and one of the Iberian Peninsula's major urban areas. Porto c ...
on 16 June 1147. There they were convinced to meet with King
Afonso I of Portugal Dom Afonso IOr also ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese-Galician) or ''Alphonso'' (Portuguese-Galician languages, Portuguese-Galician) or ''Alphonsus'' (Latin version), sometimes rendered in English as ''Alphonzo'' or ''Alphonse'', depending on th ...
. The crusaders agreed to help the king attack
Lisbon Lisbon ( ; ) is the capital and largest city of Portugal, with an estimated population of 567,131, as of 2023, within its administrative limits and 3,028,000 within the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, metropolis, as of 2025. Lisbon is mainlan ...
, with a solemn agreement that offered to them the pillage of the city's goods and the ransom money for expected prisoners. However, some of the crusader forces were hesitant to help, remembering a previous failed attempt on the city by a combined force of Portuguese and northern crusaders during the earlier siege of Lisbon in 1142. The 1147 siege of Lisbon lasted from 1 July to 25 October, when the Moorish rulers agreed to surrender primarily due to hunger within the city. Most of the crusaders settled in the newly captured city, but some of them set sail and continued to the Holy Land. Some of them, who had departed earlier, helped capture Santarém earlier in the same year. Later they also helped to conquer Sintra,
Almada Almada () is a city and a municipality in Portugal, located on the southern margin of the Tagus River, on the opposite side of the river from Lisbon. The two cities are connected by the 25 de Abril Bridge. The population of the municipality in 20 ...
, Palmela and
Setúbal Setúbal ( , , ; ), officially the City of Setúbal (), is a city and a municipality in Portugal. The population of the entire municipality in 2014 was 118,166, occupying an area of . The city itself had 89,303 inhabitants in 2001. It lies withi ...
, and they were allowed to stay in the conquered lands, where they settled down and had offspring. Almost at the same time on the peninsula, King
Alfonso VII of León Alphons (Latinized ''Alphonsus'', ''Adelphonsus'', or ''Adefonsus'') is a male given name recorded from the 8th century ( Alfonso I of Asturias, r. 739–757) in the Christian successor states of the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula. ...
, Count Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona, and others led a mixed army of Catalan, Leonese, Castilian and French crusaders against the rich port city of
Almería Almería (, , ) is a city and municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain, located in Andalusia. It is the capital of the province of Almería, province of the same name. It lies in southeastern Iberian Peninsula, Iberia on the Mediterranean S ...
. With support from a GenoesePisan navy, the city was occupied in October 1147. Ramon Berenguer then invaded the lands of the Almoravid ''taifa'' kingdom of
Valencia Valencia ( , ), formally València (), is the capital of the Province of Valencia, province and Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Valencian Community, the same name in Spain. It is located on the banks of the Turia (r ...
and Murcia. The fraction of the crusading forces which had aided the Portuguese in the capture of Lisbon were encouraged to participate in the proposed siege of Tortosa by the Count of Barcelona and the English Papal envoy Nicholas Breakspear. In December 1148, he captured Tortosa after a five-month siege—again with the help of French, Rhenish, Flemish, Anglo-Norman and Genoese crusaders. A large number of crusader forces were rewarded with lands inside and in the vicinity of the newly captured city. The next year, Fraga,
Lleida Lleida (, ; ; '' see below'') is a city in the west of Catalonia, Spain. It is the capital and largest town in Segrià county, the Ponent region and the province of Lleida. Geographically, it is located in the Catalan Central Depression. It ...
and Mequinenza in the confluence of the Segre and
Ebro The Ebro (Spanish and Basque ; , , ) is a river of the north and northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, in Spain. It rises in Cantabria and flows , almost entirely in an east-southeast direction. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a de ...
rivers fell to his army.


Forces


Muslims

The professional soldiers of the Muslim states, who were usually ethnic Turks, tended to be very well-trained and equipped. The basis of the military system in the Islamic Middle East was the '' iqta''' system of fiefs, which supported a certain number of troops in every district. In the event of war, the '' ahdath'' militias, based in the cities under the command of the ''ra’is'' (chief), and who were usually ethnic Arabs, were called upon to increase the number of troops. The ''ahdath'' militia, though less well trained than the Turkish professional troops, were often very strongly motivated by religion, especially the concept of
jihad ''Jihad'' (; ) is an Arabic word that means "exerting", "striving", or "struggling", particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God in Islam, God ...
. Further support came from Turkmen and
Kurd Kurds (), or the Kurdish people, are an Iranian peoples, Iranic ethnic group from West Asia. They are indigenous to Kurdistan, which is a geographic region spanning southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northeastern Syri ...
ish auxiliaries, who could be called upon in times of war, though these forces were prone to indiscipline. The principal Islamic commander was Mu'in ad-Din Unur, the ''atabeg'' of Damascus from 1138 to 1149. Damascus was supposedly ruled by the
Burid dynasty The Burid dynasty (Arabic: الدولة البورية Romanized: ad-Dawlā al-Būriyā) or the Emirate of Damascus (Arabic: إمارة دمشق Romanized: Imarat Dimashq) was a Sunni Muslim dynasty of Oghuz Turkic origin which ruled over the Emi ...
of Damascus, but Anur, who commanded the military, was the real ruler of the city. The historian David Nicolle described Anur as an able general and diplomat, also well known as a patron of the arts. Because the Burid dynasty was displaced in 1154 by the Zengid dynasty, Anur's role in repulsing the Second Crusade has been largely erased with historians and chroniclers loyal to the Zengids giving the credit to Anur's rival, Nur al-Din Zengi, the emir of Aleppo.


Crusaders

The German contingent comprised about 20,000 knights; the French contingent had about 700 knights from the king's lands while the nobility raised smaller numbers of knights; and the Kingdom of Jerusalem had about 950 knights and 6,000 infantrymen. The French knights preferred to fight on horseback, while the German knights liked to fight on foot. The
Byzantine Greek Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek, Byzantine Greek, or Romaic; Greek: ) is the stage of the Greek language between the end of classical antiquity in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages, conventionally dated to the F ...
chronicler John Kinnamos wrote "the French are particularly capable of riding horseback in good order and attacking with the spear, and their cavalry surpasses that of the Germans in speed. The Germans, however, are able to fight on foot better than the French and excel in using the great sword." Conrad III was considered to be a brave knight, though often described as indecisive in moments of crisis. Louis VII was a devout Christian with a sensitive side who was often attacked by contemporaries like Bernard of Clairvaux for being more in love with his wife Eleanor than he was interested in war or politics.
Stephen, King of England Stephen (1092 or 1096 – 25 October 1154), often referred to as Stephen of Blois, was King of England from 22 December 1135 to his death in 1154. He was Count of Boulogne ''jure uxoris'' from 1125 until 1147 and Duke of Normandy from 1135 ...
did not participate in the second crusade due to internal conflicts in his kingdom. Meanwhile, King
David I of Scotland David I or Dauíd mac Maíl Choluim (Scottish Gaelic, Modern Gaelic: ''Daibhidh I mac haoilChaluim''; – 24 May 1153) was a 12th century ruler and saint who was David I as Prince of the Cumbrians, Prince of the Cumbrians from 1113 to 112 ...
was dissuaded by his subjects from joining the crusade himself.


In the East

Joscelin II retook the town of Edessa and besieged the citadel following Zengi's murder, but Nur ad-Din defeated him in November 1146. On 16 February 1147, the French crusaders met at Étampes to discuss their route. The Germans had already decided to travel overland through Hungary; they regarded the sea route as politically impractical because
Roger II of Sicily Roger II or Roger the Great (, , Greek language, Greek: Ρογέριος; 22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of Kingdom of Sicily, Sicily and Kingdom of Africa, Africa, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother Simon, C ...
was an enemy of Conrad. Many of the French nobles distrusted the land route, which would take them through the Byzantine Empire, the reputation of which still suffered from the accounts of the First Crusaders. Nevertheless, the French decided to follow Conrad, and to set out on 15 June. Roger II took offence and refused to participate any longer. In France, Abbot Suger was elected by a great council at Étampes (and appointed by the Pope) to act as one of the regents during the king's absence on crusade. In Germany, further preaching was done by Adam of Ebrach, and
Otto of Freising Otto of Freising (; – 22 September 1158) was a German churchman of the Cistercian order and chronicled at least two texts which carry valuable information on the political history of his own time. He was the bishop of Freising from 1138. Ot ...
also took the cross. The Germans planned to set out at
Easter Easter, also called Pascha ( Aramaic: פַּסְחָא , ''paskha''; Greek: πάσχα, ''páskha'') or Resurrection Sunday, is a Christian festival and cultural holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in t ...
, but did not leave until May.


German route

The German crusaders, accompanied by the papal legate and cardinal Theodwin, intended to meet the French in Constantinople. Ottokar III of Styria joined Conrad at Vienna, and Conrad's enemy Géza II of Hungary allowed them to pass through unharmed. When the German army of 20,000 men arrived in Byzantine territory, Emperor
Manuel I Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos (; 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180), Latinized as Comnenus, also called Porphyrogenitus (; " born in the purple"), was a Byzantine emperor of the 12th century who reigned over a crucial turning point in the history o ...
feared they were going to attack him, and had Byzantine troops posted to ensure against trouble. A brief skirmish with some of the more unruly Germans occurred near Philippopolis and in
Adrianople Edirne (; ), historically known as Orestias, Adrianople, is a city in Turkey, in the northwestern part of the Edirne Province, province of Edirne in Eastern Thrace. Situated from the Greek and from the Bulgarian borders, Edirne was the second c ...
, where the Byzantine general Prosouch fought with Conrad's nephew, the future emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. To make matters worse, some of the German soldiers were killed in a flood at the beginning of September. On 10 September, however, they arrived at Constantinople, where relations with Manuel were poor, resulting in the Battle of Constantinople, after which the Germans became convinced that they should cross into Anatolia as quickly as possible. Manuel wanted Conrad to leave some of his troops behind, to assist in defending against attacks from Roger II, who had taken the opportunity to plunder the cities of Greece, but Conrad did not agree, despite being a fellow enemy of Roger. In Anatolia, Conrad decided not to wait for the French, but marched towards Iconium, capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. Conrad split his army into two divisions. Much of the authority of the Byzantine Empire in the western provinces of Anatolia was more nominal than real, with much of the provinces being a no-man's land controlled by Turkish nomads. Conrad underestimated the length of the march against Anatolia, and anyhow assumed that the authority of Emperor Manuel was greater in Anatolia than was in fact the case. Conrad took the knights and the best troops with himself to march overland while sending the camp followers with Otto of Freising to follow the coastal road. The Seljuks almost totally destroyed King Conrad's party on 25 October 1147 at the second battle of Dorylaeum. In battle, the Turks used their typical tactic of pretending to retreat, and then returning to attack the small force of German cavalry which had separated from the main army to chase them. Conrad began a slow retreat back to Constantinople, his army harassed daily by the Turks, who attacked stragglers and defeated the rearguard. Conrad himself was wounded in a skirmish with them. The other division of the German force, led by the King's half-brother, Bishop
Otto of Freising Otto of Freising (; – 22 September 1158) was a German churchman of the Cistercian order and chronicled at least two texts which carry valuable information on the political history of his own time. He was the bishop of Freising from 1138. Ot ...
, had marched south to the Mediterranean coast and was similarly defeated early in 1148. The force led by Otto ran out of food while crossing inhospitable countryside and was ambushed by the Seljuks near Laodicea on 16 November 1147. The majority of Otto's force were either killed in battle or captured and sold into slavery.


French route

The French crusaders had departed from
Metz Metz ( , , , then ) is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle (river), Moselle and the Seille (Moselle), Seille rivers. Metz is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Moselle (department), Moselle Departments ...
in June 1147, led by Louis, Thierry of Alsace, Renaut I of Bar, Amadeus III of Savoy and his half-brother William V of Montferrat, William VII of Auvergne, and others, along with armies from Lorraine,
Brittany Brittany ( ) is a peninsula, historical country and cultural area in the north-west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica in Roman Gaul. It became an Kingdom of Brittany, independent kingdom and then a Duch ...
,
Burgundy Burgundy ( ; ; Burgundian: ''Bregogne'') is a historical territory and former administrative region and province of east-central France. The province was once home to the Dukes of Burgundy from the early 11th until the late 15th century. ...
and
Aquitaine Aquitaine (, ; ; ; ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''Aguiéne''), archaic Guyenne or Guienne (), is a historical region of southwestern France and a former Regions of France, administrative region. Since 1 January 2016 it has been part of the administ ...
. A force from
Provence Provence is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which stretches from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the France–Italy border, Italian border to the east; it is bordered by the Mediterrane ...
, led by Alphonse of Toulouse, chose to wait until August, and to cross by sea. At
Worms The World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) is a taxonomic database that aims to provide an authoritative and comprehensive catalogue and list of names of marine organisms. Content The content of the registry is edited and maintained by scien ...
, Louis joined with crusaders from
Normandy Normandy (; or ) is a geographical and cultural region in northwestern Europe, roughly coextensive with the historical Duchy of Normandy. Normandy comprises Normandy (administrative region), mainland Normandy (a part of France) and insular N ...
and England. They followed Conrad's route fairly peacefully, although Louis came into conflict with King Géza II of Hungary, when Géza discovered that Louis had allowed a failed Hungarian usurper, Boris Kalamanos, to join his army. Relations within Byzantine territory were also grim, and the Lorrainers, who had marched ahead of the rest of the French, also came into conflict with the slower Germans whom they met on the way. Since the original negotiations between Louis and Manuel I, Manuel had broken off his military campaign against Rûm, signing a truce with his enemy Sultan Mesud I. Manuel did this to give himself a free hand to concentrate on defending his empire from the crusaders, who had gained a reputation for theft and treachery since the First Crusade and were widely suspected of harbouring sinister designs on Constantinople. Nevertheless, Manuel's relations with the French army were somewhat better than with the Germans, and Louis was entertained lavishly in Constantinople. Some of the French were outraged by Manuel's truce with the Seljuks and called for an alliance with Roger II and an attack on Constantinople, but Louis restrained them. When the armies from Savoy, Auvergne and
Montferrat Montferrat ( , ; ; , ; ) is a historical region of Piedmont, in northern Italy. It comprises roughly (and its extent has varied over time) the modern provinces of Province of Alessandria, Alessandria and Province of Asti, Asti. Montferrat ...
joined Louis in Constantinople, having taken the land route through Italy and crossing from
Brindisi Brindisi ( ; ) is a city in the region of Apulia in southern Italy, the capital of the province of Brindisi, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Historically, the city has played an essential role in trade and culture due to its strategic position ...
to Durazzo, the entire army took ship across the
Bosporus The Bosporus or Bosphorus Strait ( ; , colloquially ) is a natural strait and an internationally significant waterway located in Istanbul, Turkey. The Bosporus connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and forms one of the continental bo ...
to Anatolia. The Greeks were encouraged by rumours that the Germans had captured Iconium, but Manuel refused to give Louis any Byzantine troops.
Roger II of Sicily Roger II or Roger the Great (, , Greek language, Greek: Ρογέριος; 22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of Kingdom of Sicily, Sicily and Kingdom of Africa, Africa, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother Simon, C ...
had just invaded Byzantine territory, and Manuel needed all his army in the
Peloponnese The Peloponnese ( ), Peloponnesus ( ; , ) or Morea (; ) is a peninsula and geographic region in Southern Greece, and the southernmost region of the Balkans. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridg ...
. Both the Germans and French therefore entered Asia without any Byzantine assistance, unlike the armies of the First Crusade. Following the example set by his grandfather Alexios I, Manuel had the French swear to return to the Empire any territory they captured. The French met the remnants of Conrad's army at Lopadion, and Conrad joined Louis's force. They followed Otto of Freising's route, moving closer to the Mediterranean coast, and arrived at
Ephesus Ephesus (; ; ; may ultimately derive from ) was an Ancient Greece, ancient Greek city on the coast of Ionia, in present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in the 10th century BC on the site of Apasa, the former Arzawan capital ...
in December, where they learned that the Turks were preparing to attack them. Manuel also sent ambassadors complaining about the pillaging and plundering that Louis had done along the way, and there was no guarantee that the Byzantines would assist them against the Turks. Meanwhile, Conrad fell sick and returned to Constantinople, where Manuel attended to him personally, and Louis, paying no attention to the warnings of a Turkish attack, marched out from Ephesus with the French and German survivors. The Turks were indeed waiting to attack, but in at the Battle of Ephesus on 24 December 1147, the French proved victorious. The French fended off another Turkish ambush at the Battle of the Meander in the same month. They reached
Laodicea on the Lycus Laodicea on the Lycus ( ''Laodikeia pros tou Lykou''; , also transliterated as ''Laodiceia'' or ''Laodikeia'') ( or archaically as ) was a rich ancient Greek city in Asia Minor, now Turkey, on the river Lycus (Çürüksu). It was located in the ...
early in January 1148, just after Otto of Freising's army had been destroyed in the same area. Resuming the march, the vanguard under Amadeus of Savoy became separated from the rest of the army at the Battle of Mount Cadmus, where Louis's troops suffered heavy losses from the Turks (6 January 1148). Louis himself, according to Odo of Deuil, climbed a rock and was ignored by the Turks, who did not recognize him. The Turks did not bother to attack further and the French marched on to Attalia, continually harassed from afar by the Turks, who had also burned the land to prevent the French from replenishing their food, both for themselves and their horses. Louis no longer wanted to continue by land, and it was decided to gather a fleet at Attalia and to sail for Antioch. After being delayed for a month by storms, most of the promised ships did not arrive at all. Louis and his associates claimed the ships for themselves, while the rest of the army had to resume the long march to Antioch. The army was almost entirely destroyed, either by the Turks or by sickness.


Journey to Jerusalem

Though delayed by storms, Louis eventually arrived in Antioch on 19 March; Amadeus of Savoy had died in
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
along the way. Louis was welcomed by Eleanor's uncle Raymond of Poitiers. Raymond expected him to help defend against the Turks and to accompany him on an expedition against Aleppo, the Muslim city that functioned as the gateway to Edessa, but Louis refused, preferring instead to finish his pilgrimage to Jerusalem rather than focus on the military aspect of the crusade. Eleanor enjoyed her stay, but her uncle implored her to remain to enlarge family lands and divorce Louis if the king refused to help what was assuredly the military cause of the Crusade. During this period, there were rumours of an affair between Raymond and Eleanor, which caused tensions in the marriage between Louis and Eleanor. Louis quickly left Antioch for Tripoli with Eleanor under arrest. Meanwhile, Otto of Freising and the remnant of his troops arrived in Jerusalem early in April, and Conrad soon after. Fulk, the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, was sent to invite Louis to join them. The fleet that had stopped at Lisbon arrived around this time, as well as the Provençals who had left Europe under the command of Alfonso Jordan,
Count of Toulouse The count of Toulouse (, ) was the ruler of Toulouse during the 8th to 13th centuries. Originating as vassals of the Frankish kings, the hereditary counts ruled the city of Toulouse and its surrounding county from the late 9th century until 12 ...
. Alfonso himself did not reach Jerusalem; he died at Caesarea, supposedly poisoned by Raymond II of Tripoli, the nephew who feared his political aspirations in the county. The claim that Raymond had poisoned Alfonso caused much of the Provençal force to turn back and return home. The original focus of the crusade was Edessa, but the preferred target of King Baldwin III and of the
Knights Templar The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, mainly known as the Knights Templar, was a Military order (religious society), military order of the Catholic Church, Catholic faith, and one of the most important military ord ...
was Damascus. In response to the arrival of the crusaders, the regent of Damascus, Mu'in ad-Din Unur, started making feverish preparations for war, strengthening the fortifications of Damascus, ordering troops to his city and having the water sources along the road to Damascus destroyed or diverted. Unur sought help from the Zangid rulers of Aleppo and Mosul (who were normally his rivals), though forces from these states did not arrive in time to see combat outside of Damascus. It is almost certain that the Zangid rulers delayed sending troops to Damascus out of the hope that their rival Unur might lose his city to the crusaders.


Council of Palmarea

The nobility of Jerusalem welcomed the arrival of troops from Europe. A council to decide on the best target for the crusaders took place on 24 June 1148, when the
High Court of Jerusalem The Haute Cour ({{langx, en, High Court) was the feudal council of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. It was sometimes also called the ''curia generalis'', the ''curia regis'', or, rarely, the ''parlement''. Composition of the court The Haute Cour was a ...
met with the recently arrived crusaders from Europe at Palmarea, near
Acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...
, a major city of the crusader
Kingdom of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem, also known as the Crusader Kingdom, was one of the Crusader states established in the Levant immediately after the First Crusade. It lasted for almost two hundred years, from the accession of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1 ...
. This was the most spectacular meeting of the Court in its existence. In the end, the decision was made to attack the city of Damascus, a former ally of the Kingdom of Jerusalem that had shifted its allegiance to that of the Zengids, and attacked the Kingdom's allied city of
Bosra Bosra (), formerly Bostra () and officially called Busra al-Sham (), is a town in southern Syria, administratively belonging to the Daraa District of the Daraa Governorate and geographically part of the Hauran region. Bosra is an ancient cit ...
in 1147. Historians have long seen the decision to besiege Damascus rather than Edessa as "an act of inexplicable folly". Noting the tensions between Unur, the ''atabeg'' of Damascus, and the growing power of the Zangids, many historians have argued that it would have been better for the crusaders to focus their energy against the Zangids. More recently, historians such as David Nicolle have defended the decision to attack Damascus, arguing that Damascus was the most powerful Muslim state in southern Syria, and that if the Christians held Damascus, they would have been in a better position to resist the rising power of Nur ad-Din. Since Unur was clearly the weaker of the two Muslim rulers, it was believed that it was inevitable that Nur ad-Din would take Damascus sometime in the near future, and thus it seemed better for the crusaders to hold that city rather than the Zangids. In July their armies assembled at
Tiberias Tiberias ( ; , ; ) is a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee in northern Israel. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's Four Holy Cities, along with Jerusalem, Heb ...
and marched to Damascus, around the
Sea of Galilee The Sea of Galilee (, Judeo-Aramaic languages, Judeo-Aramaic: יַמּא דטבריא, גִּנֵּיסַר, ), also called Lake Tiberias, Genezareth Lake or Kinneret, is a freshwater lake in Israel. It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth ...
by way of Banias. There were perhaps 50,000 troops in total.


Siege of Damascus

The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west, where orchards would provide them with a constant food supply. They arrived at Darayya on 23 July. The following day, the Muslims were prepared for the attack and constantly attacked the army advancing through the orchards outside Damascus. The defenders had sought help from Sayf al-Din Ghazi I of Mosul and Nur ad-Din of Aleppo, who personally led an attack on the crusader camp. The crusaders were pushed back from the walls into the orchards, leaving them exposed to ambushes and guerrilla attacks. According to William of Tyre, on 27 July the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city, which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water. It was recorded by some that Unur had bribed the leaders to move to a less defensible position, and that Unur had promised to break off his alliance with Nur ad-Din if the crusaders went home. Meanwhile, Nur ad-Din and Sayf al-Din had arrived. With Nur ad-Din in the field it was impossible for the crusaders to return to their better position. The local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege, and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city. First Conrad, then the rest of the army, decided to retreat to Jerusalem on 28 July, though for their entire retreat they were followed by Turkish archers who constantly harassed them.


Aftermath

The crusaders were victorious in the west, where they conquered several territories—including
Lisbon Lisbon ( ; ) is the capital and largest city of Portugal, with an estimated population of 567,131, as of 2023, within its administrative limits and 3,028,000 within the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, metropolis, as of 2025. Lisbon is mainlan ...
, which would later became the capital of Portugal and thus the
Portuguese Empire The Portuguese Empire was a colonial empire that existed between 1415 and 1999. In conjunction with the Spanish Empire, it ushered in the European Age of Discovery. It achieved a global scale, controlling vast portions of the Americas, Africa ...
. In the east, each of the Christian forces felt betrayed by the other. A new plan was made to attack Ascalon and Conrad took his troops there, but no further help arrived, due to the lack of trust that had resulted from the failed siege. This mutual distrust would linger for a generation due to the defeat, to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land. After quitting Ascalon, Conrad returned to Constantinople to further his alliance with Manuel. Louis remained behind in Jerusalem until 1149. The discord also extended to the marriage of Louis and Eleanor, which had been falling apart during the course of the Crusade. In April 1149, Louis and Eleanor, who were barely on speaking terms by this time, pointedly boarded separate ships to take them back to France. Back in Europe, Bernard of Clairvaux was humiliated by the defeat. Bernard considered it his duty to send an apology to the Pope and it is inserted in the second part of his ''Book of Consideration''. There, he explains how the sins of the crusaders were the cause of their misfortune and failures. When his attempt to call a new crusade failed, he tried to disassociate himself from the fiasco of the Second Crusade altogether. He would die in 1153. The cultural impact of the Second Crusade was even greater in France, with many troubadours fascinated by the alleged affair between Eleanor and Raymond, which helped to feed the theme of courtly love. Unlike Conrad, the image of Louis was improved by the Crusade with many of the French seeing him as a suffering pilgrim king who quietly bore God's punishments. Relations between the Eastern Roman Empire and the French were badly damaged by the Crusade. Louis and other French leaders openly accused the Emperor Manuel I of colluding with Turkish attacks on them during the march across Anatolia. The memory of the Second Crusade was to colour French views of the Byzantines for the rest of the 12th and 13th centuries. Within the empire itself, the crusade was remembered as a triumph of diplomacy. In the eulogy for the Emperor Manuel by Archbishop Eustathius of Thessalonica, it was declared, "He was able to deal with his enemies with enviable skill, playing off one against the other with the aim of bringing peace and tranquility". In the East the situation was much darker for the Christians. In the Holy Land, the Second Crusade had disastrous long-term consequences for Jerusalem. In 1149, the ''atabeg'' Anur died, at which point Abu Sa'id Mujir al-Din Abaq Ibn Muhammad began to rule as emir. The ''ra'is'' of Damascus and commander of the ''ahdath'' military Mu'ayad al-Dawhal Ibn al-Sufi feel that since his ''ahdath'' had played a major role in defeating the Second Crusade that he deserved a greater share of the power, and within two months of Anur's death was leading a rebellion against Abaq. The in-fighting within Damascus was to lead to the end of the Burid state within five years. Damascus no longer trusted the crusader kingdom and was taken by Nur ad-Din after a short siege in 1154. Baldwin III finally seized Ascalon in 1153, which brought
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
into the sphere of conflict. Jerusalem was able to make further advances into Egypt, briefly occupying
Cairo Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...
in the 1160s. However, relations with the Byzantine Empire were mixed, and reinforcements from Europe were sparse after the disaster of the Second Crusade. King
Amalric I of Jerusalem Amalric (; 113611 July 1174), formerly known in historiography as , was the king of Jerusalem from 1163 until his death. He was, in the opinion of his Muslim adversaries, the bravest and cleverest of the crusader kings. Amalric was the younger ...
allied with the Byzantines and participated in a combined invasion of Egypt in 1169, but the expedition ultimately failed. In 1171,
Saladin Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub ( – 4 March 1193), commonly known as Saladin, was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Hailing from a Kurdish family, he was the first sultan of both Egypt and Syria. An important figure of the Third Crusade, h ...
, nephew of one of Nur ad-Din's generals, was proclaimed Sultan of Egypt, uniting
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
and
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
and completely surrounding the crusader kingdom. Meanwhile, the Byzantine alliance ended with the death of Emperor Manuel I in 1180, and in 1187, Jerusalem capitulated to Saladin. His forces then spread north to capture all but the capital cities of the Crusader States, precipitating the
Third Crusade The Third Crusade (1189–1192) was an attempt led by King Philip II of France, King Richard I of England and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to reconquer the Holy Land following the capture of Jerusalem by the Ayyubid sultan Saladin in 1187. F ...
.


Notes


References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading


Primary sources

* Osbernus. ''De expugniatione Lyxbonensi. The Conquest of Lisbon''. Edited and translated by Charles Wendell David. Columbia University Press, 1936. * Odo of Deuil
''De profectione Ludovici VII in orientem''
Edited and translated by Virginia Gingerick Berry. Columbia University Press, 1948. *
Otto of Freising Otto of Freising (; – 22 September 1158) was a German churchman of the Cistercian order and chronicled at least two texts which carry valuable information on the political history of his own time. He was the bishop of Freising from 1138. Ot ...
. ''Gesta Friderici I Imperatoris. The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa''. Edited and translated by Charles Christopher Mierow. Columbia University Press, 1953. * ''The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusaders, extracted and translated from the Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi''. Edited and translated by H. A. R. Gibb. London, 1932. * ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniatēs'', trans. Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1984. * John Cinnamus, ''Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus'', trans. Charles M. Brand. Columbia University Press, 1976.


Secondary sources

* * Ferzoco, George. "The Origin of the Second Crusade". In Gervers (see below), an
available online
* Gervers, Michael, ed. ''The Second Crusade and the Cistercians''. St. Martin's Press, 1992. * * Phillips, Jonathan, and Martin Hoch, eds. ''The Second Crusade: Scope and Consequences''. Manchester University Press, 2001. *


External links



at the Internet Medieval Sourcebook {{Authority control 12th-century crusades 1140s conflicts 12th-century Christianity 12th century in religion Crusader–Fatimid wars Wars involving the Kingdom of Jerusalem Wars involving the Holy Roman Empire Wars involving the Byzantine Empire 1140s in the Kingdom of Jerusalem 12th century in the Fatimid Caliphate Wars involving the Nizari Ismaili state