Scale Worm
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Polynoidae is a
family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...
of marine
Polychaete Polychaeta () is a paraphyletic class of generally marine Annelid, annelid worms, common name, commonly called bristle worms or polychaetes (). Each body segment has a pair of fleshy protrusions called parapodia that bear many bristles, called c ...
worms known as "scale worms" due to the scale-like
elytra An elytron (; ; : elytra, ) is a modified, hardened forewing of beetles (Coleoptera), though a few of the true bugs (Hemiptera) such as the family Schizopteridae are extremely similar; in true bugs, the forewings are called hemelytra (sometime ...
on the dorsal surface. Almost 900 species are currently recognised belonging to 9 subfamilies and 167 genera. They are active hunters, but generally dwell in protected environments such as under stones. The group is widely distributed from shallow
intertidal The intertidal zone or foreshore is the area above water level at low tide and underwater at high tide; in other words, it is the part of the littoral zone within the tidal range. This area can include several types of habitats with various sp ...
waters to
hadal The hadal zone, also known as the hadopelagic zone, is the deepest region of the ocean, lying within oceanic trenches. The hadal zone ranges from around below sea level, and exists in long, narrow, topographic V-shaped depressions. The cumula ...
trenches. They are the most diverse group of polychaetes in terms of genus number and second most diverse in terms of species number which is almost 8% of all segmented worm species.


Description

Most Polynoidae species are short and flattened, but can reach as much as 20 cm in length and 10 cm width in ''
Eulagisca gigantea ''Eulagisca gigantea'' is a species of Polynoidae, scale worm commonly known as the Antarctic scale worm. This species is specifically found in the deep sea in cold waters like the Southern Ocean, Antarctic Ocean. The scale worms are named for t ...
'' and ''
Eulagisca uschakovi ''Eulagisca uschakovi'' is a giant scale worm known from the Antarctic, in waters such as off Mac.Robertson Land, Palmer Archipelago and the Weddell Sea, at depths of 10 to 920m. Description Specimens can grow to up to around 190 mm in l ...
''. Individuals are usually covered almost entirely by
elytra An elytron (; ; : elytra, ) is a modified, hardened forewing of beetles (Coleoptera), though a few of the true bugs (Hemiptera) such as the family Schizopteridae are extremely similar; in true bugs, the forewings are called hemelytra (sometime ...
, which can be shed and regenerated in many species. The elytra of some species are faintly
bioluminescent Bioluminescence is the emission of light during a chemiluminescence reaction by living organisms. Bioluminescence occurs in multifarious organisms ranging from marine vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as in some fungi, microorganisms inc ...
, and leave glowing traces around the mouthparts of their predators, making those predators more likely to be attacked in turn.


Deep sea

The first deep-sea species of Polynoidae was collected at 1230 m during the
Challenger Expedition The ''Challenger'' expedition of 1872–1876 was a scientific programme that made many discoveries to lay the foundation of oceanography. The expedition was named after the naval vessel that undertook the trip, . The expedition, initiated by W ...
and a number of subfamilies appear to be restricted to the deep sea below 500 m. Species have colonised submarine caves and
hydrothermal vents Hydrothermal vents are fissures on the seabed from which geothermally heated water discharges. They are commonly found near volcanically active places, areas where tectonic plates are moving apart at mid-ocean ridges, ocean basins, and hots ...
. Deep sea species are characterised by a partial or complete loss of antennae, fewer segments, a reduction in jaws and delicate elytra.


Phylogenetic relationships

The Polynoidae has been shown to be
monophyletic In biological cladistics for the classification of organisms, monophyly is the condition of a taxonomic grouping being a clade – that is, a grouping of organisms which meets these criteria: # the grouping contains its own most recent co ...
, however relationships within the family are unclear and hence the number of valid subfamilies has been repeatedly revised in recent years. One of the main deep sea subfamilies, the Macellicephalinae has been consistently recovered as
paraphyletic Paraphyly is a taxonomic term describing a grouping that consists of the grouping's last common ancestor and some but not all of its descendant lineages. The grouping is said to be paraphyletic ''with respect to'' the excluded subgroups. In co ...
, and it has been proposed that ten Polynoid subfamilies could be synonymized with it to create a homogeneous clade characterised by a lack of lateral antennae. More recently, however, one of the synonymized subfamilies was reinstated.


Genera

The following Polynoidae genera are recognised as valid as of June 2020: *''
Acanthicolepis ''Acanthicolepis'' is a genus of marine annelids in the family Polynoidae (scale worms). The genus was described in 1990 and includes two short-bodied species with up to 50 segments and which occur in the Mediterranean Sea and North-east Atlan ...
'' *'' Acholoe'' *''
Admetella ''Admetella'' is a genus of marine annelids in the family Polynoidae (scale worms). Species of ''Admetella'', although uncommonly collected are nevertheless known from widespread localities in the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans at depths o ...
'' *''
Adyte ''Adyte hyalina'' is a species of marine annelids in the family Polynoidae (scale worms) and the only accepted species in the genus ''Adyte''. ''Adyte hyalina'' occurs in the North-east Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, at depths down to abo ...
'' *'' Alentia'' *'' Alentiana'' *'' Allmaniella'' *'' Anotochaetonoe'' *'' Antarctinoe'' *''
Antinoe In Greek mythology, the name Antinoe (; Ancient Greek: Ἀντινόη) may refer to: * Antinoe, mother of Ancaeus and Epochus by King Lycurgus of Arcadia.Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes, ''Argonautica'' 1.164 The latter's wife was otherwise k ...
'' *''
Antipathipolyeunoa ''Antipathipolyeunoa'' is a genus of marine annelids in the family Polynoidae (scale worms). The genus contains a single species, ''Antipathipolyeunoa nuttingi'', found in the Caribbean Sea at a depth of 91 metres.Pettibone, M.H. (1991). Polynoi ...
'' *'' Arcteobia'' *''
Arctonoe ''Arctonoe'' is a genus of worms in the family Polynoidae. They are commonly known as "scale worms". Members of this genus predominantly occur in shallow (50 metres or less) waters of the north-eastern Pacific Ocean and often live as commensals ...
'' *'' Arctonoella'' *''
Augenerilepidonotus ''Augenerilepidonotus dictyolepis'' is a species of marine annelids in the family Polynoidae (scale worms) and the sole member of the genus ''Augenerilepidonotus''. It is known from Australia, usually from depths of about 40 metres or less. D ...
'' *''
Australaugeneria ''Australaugeneria'' is a genus of marine annelids in the family Polynoidae (scale worms). The genus includes 4 species which are commensal on octocorals. Description Elytra 15 pairs, 36–40 segments. Lateral antennae inserted ventrally ...
'' *'' Australonoe'' *'' Austrolaenilla'' *'' Austropolaria'' *'' Barrukia'' *'' Bathyadmetella'' *'' Bathybahamas'' *'' Bathycanadia'' *'' Bathycatalina'' *'' Bathyedithia'' *'' Bathyeliasona'' *'' Bathyfauvelia'' *'' Bathyhololepidella'' *'' Bathykermadeca'' *'' Bathykurila'' *'' Bathylevensteina'' *'' Bathymacella'' *'' Bathymariana'' *'' Bathymiranda'' *'' Bathymoorea'' *'' Bathynoe'' *'' Bathynotalia'' *'' Bathypolaria'' *'' Bathytasmania'' *'' Bathyvitiazia'' *'' Bayerpolynoe'' *'' Benhamipolynoe'' *'' Benhamisetosus'' *'' Branchinotogluma'' *'' Branchiplicatus'' *'' Branchipolynoe'' *'' Bruunilla'' *'' Brychionoe'' *'' Bylgides'' *'' Capitulatinoe'' *'' Cervilia'' *'' Chaetacanthus'' *'' Dilepidonotus'' *'' Diplaconotum'' *'' Disconatis'' *'' Drieschella'' *'' Drieschiopsis'' *'' Enipo'' *'' Eucranta'' *'' Eulagisca'' *''
Eunoe Eunoe ( ; ) is a feature of Dante's ''Divine Comedy'' created by Dante as the fifth river of the dead (taking into consideration that Cocytus was described as a lake rather than a river). In the ''Purgatorio'', the second ''cantica'' of Dante's p ...
'' *''
Euphione ''Euphione'' is a genus of polychaetes belonging to the family Polynoidae. The species of this genus are found in Australia, Malesia Malesia is a biogeographical region straddling the Equator and the boundaries of the Indomalayan and Aust ...
'' *'' Euphionella'' *'' Eupolynoe'' *''
Euphione ''Euphione'' is a genus of polychaetes belonging to the family Polynoidae. The species of this genus are found in Australia, Malesia Malesia is a biogeographical region straddling the Equator and the boundaries of the Indomalayan and Aust ...
'' *'' Frennia'' *'' Gastrolepidia'' *'' Gattyana'' *'' Gaudichaudius'' *'' Gesiella'' *'' Gorekia'' *'' Gorgoniapolynoe'' *'' Grubeopolynoe'' *'' Halosydna'' *'' Halosydnella'' *'' Halosydnopsis'' *'' Harmothoe'' *'' Hartmania'' *'' Hemilepidia'' *'' Hermadion'' *'' Hermadionella'' *'' Hermenia'' *'' Hermilepidonotus'' *'' Hesperonoe'' *'' Heteralentia'' *'' Heteropolynoe'' *'' Hololepida'' *'' Hololepidella'' *'' Hylosydna'' *'' Hyperhalosydna'' *'' Intoshella'' *'' Kermadecella'' *'' Lagisca'' *'' Lepidametria'' *'' Lepidasthenia'' *'' Lepidastheniella'' *'' Lepidofimbria'' *'' Lepidogyra'' *'' Lepidonopsis'' *'' Lepidonotopodium'' *''
Lepidonotus ''Lepidonotus'' is a genus of marine annelids in the family Polynoidae (scale worms). The genus occurs globally and includes 80 species, usually found in shallow waters down to about 80 metres. Description Body dorsoventrally flattened, shor ...
'' *'' Leucia'' *'' Levensteiniella'' *'' Lobopelma'' *'' Macellicephala'' *'' Macellicephaloides'' *'' Macelloides'' *'' Malmgrenia'' *'' Medioantenna'' *'' Melaenis'' *'' Minusculisquama'' *'' Natopolynoe'' *'' Neobylgides'' *'' Neohololepidella'' *'' Neolagisca'' *'' Neopolynoe'' *'' Nonparahalosydna'' *'' Olgalepidonotus'' *'' Ophthalmonoe'' *'' Parabathynoe'' *'' Paradyte'' *'' Paragattyana'' *'' Parahalosydna'' *'' Parahalosydnopsis'' *'' Parahololepidella'' *'' Paralentia'' *'' Paralepidonotus'' *'' Paranychia'' *'' Parapolyeunoa'' *'' Pararctonoella'' *'' Pareulagisca'' *'' Peinaleopolynoe'' *'' Pelagomacellicephala'' *'' Perolepis'' *'' Pettibonesia'' *'' Phyllantinoe'' *'' Phyllohartmania'' *'' Phyllosheila'' *'' Podarmus'' *'' Polaruschakov'' *'' Polyeunoa'' *'' Polynoe'' *'' Polynoella'' *'' Polynoina'' *'' Pottsiscalisetosus'' *'' Pseudohalosydna'' *'' Pseudopolynoe'' *'' Robertianella'' *'' Rullieriella'' *'' Russellhanleya'' *'' Scalisetosus'' *'' Sheila'' *'' Showapolynoe'' *'' Showascalisetosus'' *'' Subadyte'' *'' Telodrieschia'' *'' Telolepidasthenia'' *'' Tenonia'' *'' Thermopolynoe'' *'' Thormora'' *'' Tottonpolynoe'' *'' Uncopolynoe'' *'' Vampiropolynoe'' *'' Verrucapelma'' *'' Yodanoe'' *'' Ysideria''


References


Further information

*


External links


List of currently accepted Polynoidae species at the World Record of Marine SpeciesAn information system for polychaete families and higher taxa (Polikey)
{{Authority control Phyllodocida Annelid families