''Sannyasa'' ( Sanskrit: संन्यास;

IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...

: ), sometimes spelled Sanyasa (सन्न्यास) or Sanyasi (for the person), is life of renunciation and the fourth stage within the

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

system of four life stages known as '' Ashramas'', with the first three being

Brahmacharya ''Brahmacharya'' (; sa, ब्रह्मचर्य ) is a concept within Indian religions that literally means to stay in conduct within one's own Self. In Yoga, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism it generally refers to a lifestyle charac ...

(bachelor student), Grihastha (householder) and Vanaprastha (forest dweller, retired). Sannyasa is traditionally conceptualized for men or women in late years of their life, but young brahmacharis have had the choice to skip the householder and retirement stages, renounce worldly and materialistic pursuits and dedicate their lives to spiritual pursuits. Sannyasa is a form of

asceticism Asceticism (; from the el, ἄσκησις, áskesis, exercise', 'training) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their p ...

, is marked by renunciation of material desires and prejudices, represented by a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, and has the purpose of spending one's life in peaceful, spiritual pursuits. An individual in Sanyasa is known as a ''Sannyasi'' (male) or ''Sannyasini'' (female) in Hinduism, which in many ways parallel to the Sadhu and Sadhvi traditions of

Jain monasticism Jain monasticism refers to the order of monks and nuns in the Jain community and can be divided into two major denominations: the ''Digambara'' and the ''Śvētāmbara''. The monastic practices of the two major sects vary greatly, but the maj ...

, the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis of Buddhism. ''Sannyasa'' has historically been a stage of renunciation,

ahimsa Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India � ...

(non-violence) peaceful and simple life and spiritual pursuit in Indian traditions. However, this has not always been the case. After the invasions and establishment of Muslim rule in India, from the 12th century through the British Raj, parts of the Shaiva (

Gossain Gossain or Gosain or Gussain or Gosyne is a Hindi word derived from sa, गोस्वामी "lord of senses". It is used as a title in various Indian religious traditions. These include: * Gossains, a Hindu social group dealing with Vedas ...

) and Vaishnava (

Bairagi Bairagi jaat in Haryana Bairagi is a Hindu caste. They are also called by different names that are Swami, Bairagi, Mahant, Vaishnav, Vairagi, Ramanandi, Shami, Vaishnav , Pujari. They are Vaishnav, and wear the sacred thread. Bairagi c ...

) ascetics metamorphosed into a military order, where they developed martial arts, created military strategies, and engaged in guerrilla warfare. These warrior ''sanyasi'' (ascetics) played an important role in helping European colonial powers establish themselves in the Indian subcontinent.

Etymology and synonyms

' in Sanskrit nyasa means purification, sannyasa means "Purification of Everything". It is a composite word of which means "together, all", ''ni-'' which means "down" and ' from the root ', meaning "to throw" or "to put". A literal translation of Sannyāsa is thus "to put down everything, all of it". Sannyasa is sometimes spelled as ''Sanyasa''.Angus Stevenson and Maurice Wait (2011), Concise Oxford English Dictionary, , page 1275 The term ''Saṃnyasa'' makes appearance in the

Samhita Saṃhitā literally means "put together, joined, union", a "collection", and "a methodically, rule-based combination of text or verses".Aranyakas and

Brahmana The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within ea ...

s, the earliest layers of Vedic literature (2nd millennium BCE), but it is rare. It is not found in ancient Buddhist or Jaina vocabularies, and only appears in Hindu texts of the 1st millennium BCE, in the context of those who have given up ritual activity and taken up non-ritualistic spiritual pursuits discussed in the Upanishads. The term ''Sannyasa'' evolves into a rite of renunciation in ancient

Sutra ''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...

texts, and thereafter became a recognized, well discussed stage of life (Ashrama) by about the 3rd and 4th century CE. Sanyasis are also known as Bhiksu, Pravrajita/Pravrajitā, Yati, Sramana and Parivrajaka in Hindu texts.Patrick Olivelle (1981), Contributions to the Semantic History of Saṃnyāsa, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 101, No. 3, pages 265-274

History

Jamison and Witzel stateJamison and Witzel (1992)
Vedic Hinduism
, Harvard University Archives, page 47 early Vedic texts make no mention of ''Sannyasa'', or ''Ashrama system'', unlike the concepts of

Brahmacharin ''Brahmacharya'' (; sa, ब्रह्मचर्य ) is a concept within Indian religions that literally means to stay in conduct within one's own Self. In Yoga, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism it generally refers to a lifestyle charact ...

and Grihastha which they do mention. Instead,

Rig Veda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts (''śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one Sh ...

uses the term ''Antigriha'' (अन्तिगृह) in hymn 10.95.4, still part of extended family, where older people lived in ancient India, with an outwardly role. It is in later Vedic era and over time, ''Sannyasa'' and other new concepts emerged, while older ideas evolved and expanded. A three-stage Ashrama concept along with Vanaprastha emerged about or after 7th Century BC, when sages such as

Yājñavalkya Yajnavalkya or Yagyavalkya ( sa, याज्ञवल्क्य, ) is a Hindu Vedic sage figuring in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 700 BCE)., Quote: "Yajnavalkya, a Vedic sage, taught..."Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), ''A comparative histor ...

left their homes and roamed around as spiritual recluses and pursued their ''Pravrajika'' (wanderer) lifestyle. The explicit use of the four stage Ashrama concept, appeared a few centuries later. However, early Vedic literature from 2nd millennium BC, mentions ''

Muni Muni may refer to: Municipal * A common US abbreviation for municipal, municipal services, and the like *Municipal bond *Municipal Bridge, the former name of the George Rogers Clark Memorial Bridge in Louisville, Kentucky *"Muni", slang for a mu ...

'' (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy man), with characteristics that mirror those found in later ''Sannyasins'' and ''Sannyasinis''.

, for example, in Book 10 Chapter 136, mentions munis as those with ''Kesin'' (केशिन्, long haired) and ''Mala'' clothes (मल, soil-colored, yellow, orange, saffron) engaged in the affairs of ''Mananat'' (mind, meditation).GS Ghurye (1952), Ascetic Origins, Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 162-184;
For Sanskrit original
Rigveda
Wikisource;
For English translation
Kesins
Rig Veda, Hymn CXXXVI, Ralph Griffith (Translator) Rigveda, however, refers to these people as ''Muni'' and ''Vati'' (वति, monks who beg). These ''Munis'', their lifestyle and spiritual pursuit, likely influenced the Sannyasa concept, as well as the ideas behind the ancient concept of

(bachelor student). One class of ''Munis'' were associated with Rudra. Another were ''Vratyas''.

Lifestyle and goals

Hinduism has no formal demands nor requirements on the lifestyle or spiritual discipline, method or deity a Sanyasin or Sanyasini must pursue – it is left to the choice and preferences of the individual.M Khandelwal (2003), Women in Ochre Robes: Gendering Hindu Renunciation, State University of New York Press, , pages 24-29 This freedom has led to diversity and significant differences in the lifestyle and goals of those who adopt Sannyasa. There are, however, some common themes. A person in ''Sannyasa'' lives a simple life, typically detached, itinerant, drifting from place to place, with no material possessions or emotional attachments. They may have a walking stick, a book, a container or vessel for food and drink, often wearing yellow, saffron, orange,

ochre Ochre ( ; , ), or ocher in American English, is a natural clay earth pigment, a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colours produced ...

or soil colored clothes. They may have long hair and appear disheveled, and are usually vegetarians. Some minor Upanishads as well as monastic orders consider women, children, students, fallen men (those with a criminal record) and others as not qualified to become ''Sannyasa''; while other texts place no restrictions. The dress, the equipage and lifestyle varies between groups. For example, Sannyasa Upanishad in verses 2.23 to 2.29, identifies six lifestyles for six types of renunciates.A. A. Ramanathan
Sannyasa Upanishad
The Theosophical Publishing House, Chennai, verses 2.23 - 2.29 One of them is described as living with the following possessions,Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, , page 97 Those who enter Sannyasa may choose whether they join a group (mendicant order). Some are

anchorite In Christianity, an anchorite or anchoret (female: anchoress) is someone who, for religious reasons, withdraws from secular society so as to be able to lead an intensely prayer-oriented, ascetic, or Eucharist-focused life. While anchorites are ...

s, homeless mendicants preferring solitude and seclusion in remote parts, without affiliation. Others are cenobites, living and traveling with kindred fellow-Sannyasi in the pursuit of their spiritual journey, sometimes in Ashramas or Matha/Sangha (hermitages, monastic order).SS Subramuniyaswami, , in What Is Hinduism? (Editors of Hinduism Today), Jan-Mar 2006, , page 102 Most Hindu ascetics adopt

celibacy Celibacy (from Latin ''caelibatus'') is the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both, usually for religious reasons. It is often in association with the role of a religious official or devotee. In its narrow sense, the ...

when they begin Sannyasa. However, there are exceptions, such as the Saiva Tantra school of asceticism where ritual sex is considered part of liberation process. Gavin Flood (2005), The Ascetic Self: Subjectivity, Memory and Tradition, Cambridge University Press, , Chapter 4 with pages 105-107 in particular Sex is viewed by them as a transcendence from a personal, intimate act to something impersonal and ascetic.

The goal

The goal of the Hindu Sannyasin is moksha (liberation). The idea of what that means varies from tradition to tradition. For the

Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...

(devotion) traditions, liberation consists of union with the Divine and release from

Saṃsāra ''Saṃsāra'' (Devanagari: संसार) is a Pali/Sanskrit word that means "world". It is also the concept of rebirth and "cyclicality of all life, matter, existence", a fundamental belief of most Indian religions. Popularly, it is the c ...

(rebirth in future life); for Yoga traditions, liberation is the experience of the highest Samādhi (deep awareness in this life); and for the Advaita tradition, liberation is jivanmukti – the awareness of the Supreme Reality ( Brahman) and Self-realization in this life. Sannyasa is a means and an end in itself. It is a means to decreasing and then ultimately ending all ties of any kind. It is a means to the soul and meaning, but not ego nor personalities. Sannyasa does not abandon the society, it abandons the ritual mores of the social world and one's attachment to all its other manifestations. The end is a liberated, content, free and blissful existence.

The behaviors and characteristics

The behavioral state of a person in ''Sannyasa'' is described by many ancient and medieval era Indian texts. Bhagavad Gita discusses it in many verses, for example: Other behavioral characteristics, in addition to renunciation, during Sannyasa include:

(non-violence), akrodha (not become angry even if you are abused by others), disarmament (no weapons), chastity, bachelorhood (no marriage), avyati (non-desirous), amati (poverty), self-restraint, truthfulness, sarvabhutahita (kindness to all creatures),

asteya ''Achourya'' (Sanskrit: अचौर्यः, IAST: Acauryaḥ ) or ''Asteya'' (Sanskrit: अस्तेय; IAST: ''asteya'') is the Sanskrit term for "non-stealing". It is a virtue in Hinduism . The practice of ''asteya'' demands that one mus ...

(non-stealing),

aparigraha Non-possession (aparigraha ( sa, अपरिग्रह)) is a philosophy that holds that no one or anything possesses anything. ln Jainism, aparigraha is the virtue of non-possessiveness, non-grasping or non-greediness.Arti Dhand (2002), The d ...

(non-acceptance of gifts, non-possessiveness) and shaucha (purity of body speech and mind).Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, , page 96-97, 111-114 Some Hindu monastic orders require the above behavior in form of a vow, before a renunciate can enter the order. Tiwari notes that these virtues are not unique to ''Sannyasa'', and other than renunciation, all of these virtues are revered in ancient texts for all four ''Ashramas'' (stages) of human life. Baudhayana Dharmasūtra, completed by about 7th century BC, states the following behavioral vows for a person in ''Sannyasa''

Max Muller Max or MAX may refer to: Animals * Max (dog) (1983–2013), at one time purported to be the world's oldest living dog * Max (English Springer Spaniel), the first pet dog to win the PDSA Order of Merit (animal equivalent of OBE) * Max (gorilla) (1 ...

(Translator)
Baudhayana Dharmasūtra Prasna II, Adhyaya 10, Kandika 18
The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XIV, Oxford University Press, pages 279-281

Types

Ashrama Upanishad identified various types of Sannyasi renouncers based on their different goals: Kutichaka – seeking atmospheric world; Bahudaka – seeking heavenly world; Hamsa – seeking penance world; Paramahamsa – seeking truth world; and Turiyatitas and Avadhutas seeking liberation in this life. In some texts, such as Sannyasa Upanishad, these were classified by the symbolic items the Sannyasins carried and their lifestyle. For example, Kutichaka sannyasis carried triple staffs, Hamsa sannyasis carried single staffs, while Paramahamsas went without them. This method of classification based on emblematic items became controversial, as anti-thematic to the idea of renunciation. Later texts, such as Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad stated that all renunciation is one, but people enter the state of Sannyasa for different reasons – for detachment and getting away from their routine meaningless world, to seek knowledge and meaning in life, to honor rites of Sannyasa they have undertaken, and because he already has liberating knowledge. ;Other classifications There were many groups of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist Sannyasis co-existing in pre-Maurya Empire era, each classified by their attributes, such as: Achelakas (without clothes), Ajivika, Aviruddhaka, Devadhammika, Eka-satakas, Gotamaka, Jatilaka, Magandika, Mundasavaka, Nigrantha (Jains), Paribbajaka, Tedandikas, Titthiya and others.

Literature

The Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstras, composed about mid 1st millennium BC and later, place increasing emphasis on all four stages of ''Ashrama system'' including ''Sannyasa''. The Baudhayana Dharmasūtra, in verses 2.11.9 to 2.11.12, describes the four Ashramas as "a fourfold division of

Dharma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...

". The older Dharmasūtras, however, are significantly different in their treatment of ''Ashramas'' system from the more modern Dharmaśāstras, because they do not limit some of their Ashrama rituals to '' dvija'' men, that is, the three ''varnas'' – Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas.Barbara Holdrege (2004), Dharma, in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, , page 231 The newer Dharmaśāstra vary widely in their discussion of ''Ashrama'' system in the context of classes (castes), with some mentioning it for three, while others such as ''Vaikhānasa Dharmasūtra'' including all four. The Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstras give a number of detailed but widely divergent guidelines on renunciation. In all cases, Sannyasa was never mandatory and was one of the choices before an individual. Only a small percentage chose this path. OlivellePatrick Olivelle (1993), The Ashrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, posits that the older Dharmasūtras present the ''Ashramas'' including ''Sannyasa'' as four alternative ways of life and options available, but not as sequential stage that any individual must follow. Olivelle also states that ''Sannyasa'' along with the Ashrama system gained mainstream scholarly acceptance about 2nd century BC. Ancient and medieval era texts of Hinduism consider ''Grihastha'' (householder) stage as the most important of all stages in sociological context, as human beings in this stage not only pursue a virtuous life, they produce food and wealth that sustains people in other stages of life, as well as the offspring that continues mankind.RK Sharma (1999), Indian Society, Institutions and Change, , page 28 However, an individual had the choice to renounce any time he or she wanted, including straight after student life.What is Hinduism? (Editors of Hinduism Today), , Family Life and Monastic Life, Chapter 10 with page 101 in particular

When can a person renounce?

Baudhayana Dharmasūtra, in verse II.10.17.2 states that anyone who has finished

(student) life stage may become ascetic immediately, in II.10.17.3 that any childless couple may enter Sannyasa anytime they wish, while verse II.10.17.4 states that a widower may choose Sannyasa if desired, but in general, states verse II.10.17.5, Sannyasa is suited after the completion of age 70 and after one's children have been firmly settled.

(Translator)
Baudhayana Dharmasūtra Prasna II, Adhyaya 10, Kandika 17
The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XIV, Oxford University Press Other texts suggest the age of 75. The ' and ''Āpastamba Dharmasūtra''s, and the later ' describe the ''āśrama''s as sequential stages which would allow one to pass from Vedic studentship to householder to forest-dwelling hermit to renouncer. However, these texts differ with each other. Yājñavalkya Smṛti, for example, differs from Manusmṛti and states in verse 3.56 that one may skip Vanaprastha (forest dwelling, retired) stage and go straight from the ''Grihastha'' (householder) stage to ''Sannyasa''.

Who may renounce?

The question as to which ' may, or may not, renounce is never explicitly stated in ancient or medieval dharma literature, the more modern Dharmaśāstras texts discuss much of renunciation stage in context of '' dvija'' men. Nevertheless, Dharmaśāstra texts document people of all castes as well as women, entered ''Sannyasa'' in practice.

What happened to renouncers' property and human rights?

After renouncing the world, the ascetic's financial obligations and property were adjudicated by the state, in the manner of a decedent's estate. Viṣṇu Smriti in verse 6.27, for example, states that if a debtor takes ''Sannyasa'', his sons or grandsons should settle his debts. As to the little property a Sannyasin may collect or possess after renunciation, Book III Chapter XVI of Kautiliya's

Arthashastra The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is ...

states that the property of hermits (vánaprastha), ascetics (yati, sannyasa), and student bachelors (Brahmachári) shall on their death be taken by their ''guru'', disciples, their ''dharmabhratri'' (brother in the monastic order), or classmates in succession. Although a renouncer's practitioner's obligations and property rights were reassigned, he or she continued to enjoy basic human rights such as the protection from injury by others and the freedom to travel. Likewise, someone practicing Sannyasa was subject to the same laws as common citizens; stealing, harming, or killing a human being by a Sannyasi were all serious crimes in Kautiliya's Arthashastra.

Renunciation in daily life

Later Indian literature debates whether the benefit of renunciation can be achieved (''moksha,'' or liberation) without asceticism in the earlier stages of one's life. For example,

Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...

, Vidyaranya's ''Jivanmukti Viveka,'' and others believed that various alternate forms of yoga and the importance of yogic discipline could serve as paths to spirituality, and ultimately ''moksha''. Over time, four paths to liberating spirituality have emerged in Hinduism: Jñāna yoga, Bhakti yoga, Karma yoga and Rāja yoga. Acting without greed or craving for results, in Karma yoga for example, is considered a form of detachment in daily life similar to ''Sannyasa''. Sharma states that, "the basic principle of Karma yoga is that it is not what one does, but how one does it that counts and if one has the know-how in this sense, one can become liberated by doing whatever it is one does", and "(one must do) whatever one does without attachment to the results, with efficiency and to the best of one's ability".A Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, , pages 24-28

Warrior ascetics

Ascetic life was historically a life of renunciation, non-violence and spiritual pursuit. However, in India, this has not always been the case. For example, after the Mongol and Persian Islamic invasions in the 12th century, and the establishment of

Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526).

, the ensuing Hindu-Muslim conflicts provoked the creation of a military order of Hindu ascetics in India.David N. Lorenzen (1978)
Warrior Ascetics in Indian History
, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 98(1): 61-75William Pinch (2012), Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires, Cambridge University Press, These warrior ascetics formed paramilitary groups called ‘‘ Akharas'’ and they invented a range of martial arts. ''Nath Siddhas'' of the 12th century AD, may have been the earliest Hindu monks to resort to a military response after the Muslim conquest. Ascetics, by tradition, led a nomadic and unattached lifestyle. As these ascetics dedicated themselves to rebellion, their groups sought stallions, developed techniques for spying and targeting, and they adopted strategies of war against Muslim nobles and the Sultanate state. Many of these groups were devotees of Hindu deity Mahadeva, and were called ''Mahants''. Other popular names for them was ''Sannyasis'', ''Yogis'', ''Nagas'' (followers of Shiva), ''Bairagis'' (followers of Vishnu) and '' Gosains'' from the 16th to the 19th centuries; in some cases, these Hindu monks cooperated with Muslim fakirs who were Sufi and also persecuted. Warrior monks continued their rebellion through the Mughal Empire, and became a political force during the early years of British Raj. In some cases, these regiments of soldier monks shifted from guerrilla campaigns to war alliances, and these Hindu warrior monks played a key role in helping British establish themselves in India. The significance of warrior ascetics rapidly declined with the consolidation of British Raj in late 19th century, and with the rise in non-violence movement by Mahatma Gandhi. Novetzke states that some of these Hindu warrior ascetics were treated as folk heroes, aided by villagers and townspeople, because they targeted figures of political and economic power in a discriminatory state, and some of these warriors paralleled Robin Hood's lifestyle.

Sannyasa Upanishads

Of the 108 Upanishads of the Muktika, the largest corpus is dedicated to ''Sannyasa'' and to Yoga, or about 20 each, with some overlap. The renunciation-related texts are called the Sannyasa Upanishads. These are as follows: Among the thirteen major or Principal Upanishads, all from the ancient era, many include sections related to ''Sannyasa''. For example, the motivations and state of a ''Sannyasi'' are mentioned in Maitrāyaṇi Upanishad, a classical major Upanishad that Robert Hume included among his list of "Thirteen Principal Upanishads" of Hinduism. Maitrāyaṇi starts with the question, "given the nature of life, how is joy possible?" and "how can one achieve moksha (liberation)?"; in later sections it offers a debate on possible answers and its views on Sannyasa. Six of the Sannyasa Upanishads – Aruni, Kundika, Kathashruti, Paramahamsa, Jabala and Brahma – were composed before the 3rd-century CE, likely in the centuries before or after the start of the common era, states Sprockhoff; the Asrama Upanishad is dated to the 3rd-century, the Naradaparivrajaka and Satyayaniya Upanishads to around the 12th-century, and about ten of the remaining Sannyasa Upanishads are dated to have been composed in the 14th- to 15th-century CE well after the start of Islamic Sultanates period of South Asia in late 12th-century. The oldest Sannyasa Upanishads have a strong Advaita Vedanta outlook, and these pre-date Adi Shankara. Most of the Sannyasa Upanishads present a Yoga and nondualism ( Advaita) Vedanta philosophy. This may be, states

Patrick Olivelle Patrick Olivelle is an Indologist. A philologist and scholar of Sanskrit Literature whose work has focused on asceticism, renunciation and the dharma, Olivelle has been Professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions in the Department of Asian Studi ...

, because major Hindu monasteries of early medieval period (1st millennium CE) belonged to the Advaita Vedanta tradition. The 12th-century Shatyayaniya Upanishad is a significant exception, which presents qualified dualistic and Vaishnavism ( Vishishtadvaita Vedanta) philosophy.Antonio Rigopoulos (1998), Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara, State University of New York Press, , page 81 note 27

Notes

References

Cited books: *

External links

{{Commonscat
Articles on aspects of Sannyasa, Vairagya, and BrahmacharyaVows Of Sannyasa
Saiva Siddhanta - Example covenant between a Hindu Sannyasin and a Hindu Monastic Order (PDF download) Ashramas Hindu asceticism Hindu monasticism