Sanskara (philosophy)
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In
Hindu Philosophy Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the first Hinduism, Hindu religious traditions during the Iron Age in India, iron and Classical India, classical ages of India. In Indian ...
and some
Indian religions Indian religions, sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism,Adams, C. J."Classification o ...
, ''samskaras'' or ''sanskaras'' (
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
: संस्कार) are mental impressions, recollections, or psychological imprints that colour one's thoughts and actions, and form the basis for the development of
karma Karma (, from , ; ) is an ancient Indian concept that refers to an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively called ...
theory. In
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
, the Sanskrit term ''samskara'' is used to describe "mental formations," "will," and many other concepts; in
Pāli Pāli (, IAST: pāl̤i) is a classical Middle Indo-Aryan language of the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of '' Therav ...
it is referred to as '' saṅkhāra''. According to various schools of Indian philosophy, every action, intent or preparation by an individual leaves a ''samskara'' (impression, impact, imprint) in the deeper structure of the person's mind. These impressions then await volitional fruition in that individual's future, in the form of hidden expectations, circumstances or a subconscious sense of self-worth. These ''Samskaras'' manifest as tendencies, karmic impulses, subliminal impressions, habitual potencies or innate dispositions.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , page 105 In ancient Indian texts, the theory of ''Samskara'' explains how and why human beings remember things, and the effect that memories have on people's suffering, happiness and contentment.


Etymology and meaning

The
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
word ''saṃskāra'' (संस्कार) has various context-driven meanings that broadly refer to "the putting together, accomplishing well, making perfect, a form of solemn recognition and getting ready" and "mental impression, recollection".saMskAra
Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
The first use of the term, which relies primarily on its first definition, refers to Hindu
rites of passage A rite of passage is a ceremony or ritual of the passage which occurs when an individual leaves one group to enter another. It involves a significant change of status in society. In cultural anthropology the term is the Anglicisation of ''rite ...
. The second definition presents ''saṃskāra'' as a form of disposition, impression, or behavioral inclination. In this sense, it is used as a psychological concept in some Indian philosophies, such as Yoga. The concept of ''saṃskāra'' is also discussed as '' Vasana'' (Sanskrit: वासना vāsanā), particularly in the
Vaiśeṣika Vaisheshika (IAST: Vaiśeṣika; ; ) is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy from ancient India. In its early stages, Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and soteriology. Over t ...
school of Hinduism. ''Vasana'' also means "impression, inclination of anything remaining unconsciously in the mind".


Context

''Samskara'', or ''Sankhara,'' is a significant concept across major schools of
Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the first Hinduism, Hindu religious traditions during the Iron Age in India, iron and Classical India, classical ages of India. In Indian ...
as well as Buddhism and Jainism. The schools of Indian philosophy differ on the specific mechanisms about how ''samskara'' operates at the subconscious level. For example, Buddhism considers ''samskara'' as "causal continua" while being consistent with its "there is no self, no soul" premise, whereas the Vedic traditions within Hinduism consider ''samskara'' as "relational properties" (an impression, mark, impulse, tendency or a form of psychological potential energy within) that rests inside the "self, soul" of every person. In
Yoga Yoga (UK: , US: ; 'yoga' ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines that originated with its own philosophy in ancient India, aimed at controlling body and mind to attain various salvation goals, as pra ...
,
Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; , ), also known as ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six orthodox (Āstika and nāstika, ''āstika'') traditions of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The word ''Vedanta'' means 'conclusion of the Vedas', and encompa ...
and
Nyaya Nyāya (Sanskrit: न्यायः, IAST: nyāyaḥ), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment", is one of the six orthodox (Āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy. Nyāya's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy ...
schools of Hinduism, ''samskara'' constitute an affective and motivational field that contributes to the value structure within the person. They subconsciously or consciously endorse the basic inner drives that propel a human being in future action, future premises, future thoughts or future judgments. Das states that the '' Samskara rites of passage'' is a subset of actions in a human being's life, where going through the rite within the traditions of Hinduism, affects the individual internally as well as externally in how society perceives the person. This occurs in the form of impressions and imprint within, that is ''samskara''.


Hinduism

The Hindu schools differ in the details, but all posit that ''samskara'' are formed in every individual by a number of ways. This includes perceptions (what one sees, hears, touches, tastes, smells), ''chitta'' cognition (what one feels and thinks), willful actions, and also intentions before and during the action. Training and study, in these schools, is a form of exposition, introspective realization and in many cases practice or repetition to make the "impression, imprint" part of one's nature, where the practice reinforces the dispositions (''samskara'') and dispositions reinforce the practice, in a circular feedback. Scholars state that
David Hume David Hume (; born David Home; – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist who was best known for his highly influential system of empiricism, philosophical scepticism and metaphysical naturalism. Beg ...
's "impressions" theory is similar to Samskara theory of Hinduism. The Hindu schools rely on ''samskara'' theory as one of the pillars for their epistemology (''
pramana ''Pramana'' (; IAST: Pramāṇa) literally means " proof" and "means of knowledge".
''), wherein they explain how and why man knows anything, remembers anything, expects anything, feels fulfillment, feels frustration, feels freedom and joy, or feels suffering and pain. In Hindu philosophy, ''Samskara'' are the impressions and dispositions that develop and accumulate deep inside a person from perception, inference, choices, preparation, practice, interaction with others, thoughts, intent, willful actions and such karma. These manifest as habits, behavior, tendencies, psychological predispositions and dispositions.Stephen Philips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, , Chapter 3: Karma Actions, studies, diligent preparation and inner resolutions trigger Samskaras – hidden impressions or dispositions – in the psyche of an individual, and these influence how the individual acts, perceives self and the manner in which the individual responds or accepts the karmic circumstances and the future. Ian Whicher explains that, in the philosophical theories of Hinduism, every
karma Karma (, from , ; ) is an ancient Indian concept that refers to an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively called ...
(action, intent) leaves a ''samskara'' (impression, impact, imprint) in the deeper structure of human mind. This impression then awaits volitional fruition, in the form of hidden expectations, circumstances or unconscious sense of self-worth. It manifests as tendency, karmic impulse, subliminal impression, habitual potency or innate dispositions.


Samkhya-Yoga

In Samkhya and Yoga schools, Sankhara, also spelled as Samskara, are impressions or residues that affect an individual's Gunas (behavior attributes). These impressions constitute part of the mechanistic foundation behind ancient Indian scholars' explanation on how karma theory works in practice. Samskara are explained as dispositions, character or behavioral traits either as default from birth or Samskara are behavioral traits perfected over time through
Yoga Yoga (UK: , US: ; 'yoga' ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines that originated with its own philosophy in ancient India, aimed at controlling body and mind to attain various salvation goals, as pra ...
, through conscious shaping of inner self, one's desire, sense of moral responsibility and through practice.Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, SUNY Press, , pages 99-102 In Yoga school of Hinduism, all actions and intents lead to impressions and memories, whether they are active or hidden, conscious or unconscious. A person may not remember his or her past karma, yet the impressions shape his character, the habits, the circumstances, the essence of that person because of the impressions left by the karma. These tendencies, subtle traces and innate characteristics, states the Yoga school, continue to affect the person's present actions, assumptions, attitudes (''bhava''), mind (''buddhi''), moral response and interactions with everyone, everything and self. Vyasa, Patanjali and other ancient Indian scholars refer to these as karmic residues (''karmasaya''). Personality, states Patanjali, is the sum total combination of all these impressions and subtle traces (''samskaras''). Individuals tend to do what they did in the past, man forms habit and often returns to those habits, and behaviors tend to repeat because of these ''samskaras'', according to these Yoga scholars.


Vedanta

These are viewed as traces or temperament that evolves through the refinement of an individual inner consciousness and expressed personality, and is a form of "being-preparedness" in Vedantic psychology. All physical, verbal and mental activity, according to the Vedanta school of Hinduism, creates ''Samskara'', or traces inside a person. These ''Samskaras'' together then manifest as inner personality and external circumstances, and depending then on individual's response thereof, these then bear ''phala'' (fruit). In the state where an individual realizes Self and reaches ''jivanmukti'' (
moksha ''Moksha'' (; , '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'', and ''mukti'', is a term in Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, liberation, '' nirvana'', or release. In its soteriological and eschatologic ...
), Shankara, Mandana, Sarvajnatman and other Vedanta scholars suggest that the causes of impressions such as ignorance disappear, the individual reaches inner resolution and complete acceptance of self, thus becoming free of samskaras and consequent blissful state of existence.


Nyaya and Vaiśeṣika

In Nyaya school of Hinduism, ''Bhavana'' (Sanskrit: भावना) is synonymous with ''Samskara'', a property that manifests as impressions or traces on the soul. It is a key concept in Nyaya philosophy, and it applies the idea to both living and non-living world. For example, the ''vega'' (velocity) of ''vayu'' (wind) is its samskara, in Nyaya literature.PB Shukla (2000), Metaphysics: Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , page 16 The concept is intimately related to Nyaya's search and reason-driven explanation of causes behind what happens in living and non-living world, and why. All voluntary actions, state Nyayayikas, have a cause, and these are guided by Samskara. For example, a newborn child voluntarily and instinctively acts to reach for the mother's breast. This action, explain Nyaya texts, must have a cause, but the newborn has neither been provided that knowledge nor has the value of the mother's breast been explained by another, nor has the newborn formed any Samskara in the new life. The newborn has that knowledge, that instinct, from some impression, some trace within "from a prior experience".John Derrett (1977), Essays in Classical and Modern Hindu Law, BRILL Academic, , pages 106-107 That is an example of ''Samskara'', assert the Nyaya and Vaiśeṣika scholars.Stephen H. Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, , Chapter 4 In Nyaya school of Hinduism, the existence of Samskara cannot be directly perceived, only inferred. Further, not all Samskara are psychological.Stephen Philips (2014), Epistemology in Classical India: The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School, Routledge, , pages 7-46, 134, 163-170 Some simply manifest as memories, premises or beliefs shaped "from a prior experience".


Buddhism

Saṃskāra or Saṅkhāra in Buddhism refers to mental "dispositions". These result from past volitions, and are causes of future volitions. ''Saṅkhāra'' also refers to that faculty within a person wherein these dispositions are formed. Buddhism emphasizes the need to purify dispositions (''Saṅkhāra'') rather than eliminate them.


Jainism

The activities of mind, speech and body, according to Jain philosophy, lead to
Asrava ''Asrava'' (''āsrava'' "influx") is one of the ''tattva'' or the fundamental reality of the world as per the Jain philosophy. It refers to the influence of body and mind causing the soul to generate karma. The karmic process in Jainism is b ...
, that is, the influx and imprint of karmic residues to the ''jiva'' (soul) of the living being.Anne Vallely (2014), The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, , pages 358-364 These residues bind (''bandha''), forming ''karma sarira'', which can be stopped (''
saṃvara ''Samvara'' (''saṃvara'') is one of the ''tattva'' or the fundamental reality of the world as per the Jain philosophy. It means stoppage—the stoppage of the influx of the material karmas into the soul consciousness. The karmic process in J ...
'') and released (''
nirjara ''Nirjara'' is one of the seven fundamental principles, or Tattva in Jain philosophy, and refers to the shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the atma (soul), essential for breaking free from samsara, the cycle of birth-death and r ...
''). The operating mechanism, consistent with the dualism premise of Jainism, is not Saṃskāra as latent mental trace, rather ''karma bandha'' to the soul. The rituals and rites of passage, called Samskara in Jainism, are part of the ''saṃvara'' and ''nirjara'' initiation process, in order to free the soul from the crust of karmic residues.Caroline Humphrey and James Laidlaw (1994), The Archetype Actions of Ritual - A Theory of Ritual Illustrated by the Jain Rite of Worship, Oxford University Press, , pages 193-208


See also

* Saṅkhāra (Buddhist concept) *
Saṃskāra Samskara (Sanskrit: संस्कार, IAST: , sometimes spelled ''samskara'') are sacraments in Hinduism and other Indian religions, described in ancient Sanskrit texts, as well as a concept in the karma theory of Indian philosophies. The ...
(Hindu rites of passage) * Samskara (ayurvedic) (Ayurvedic medicinal process) * Meher Baba on Sanskaras *
Engram (neuropsychology) An engram is a unit of cognitive information imprinted in a physical substance, theorized to be the means by which memories are stored as biophysical or biochemical changes in the brain or other biological tissue, in response to external stimuli. ...
* Engram (Scientology)


References


External links


Mimi.hu - definitions of samskara
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