Life
Early life
Saichō was born in the year 767 in the city of Ōmi, in present Shiga Prefecture, with the given name of Hirono. According to family tradition, Saichō's ancestors were descendants of emperors of Eastern Han China; however, no positive evidence exists for this claim. The region where Saichō was born did have a large Chinese immigrant population, so Saichō likely did have Chinese ancestry. During Saichō's time, the Buddhist temples in Japan were officially organized into a national network known as theTrip to China
A stele commemorating the reception of the Tiantai Dharma by Master Saichō (located at on Tiantai Mountain">Mount Tiantai)">Tiantai_Mountain.html" ;"title="Guoqing Temple on Tiantai Mountain">Mount Tiantai) The success of the Takaosanji lectures, plus Saichō's association with Wake no Hiroyo soon caught the attention of Emperor Kanmu who consulted with Saichō about propagating his Buddhist teachings further, and to help bridge the traditional rivalry between the East Asian Yogācāra and East Asian Mādhyamaka schools. The emperor granted a petition by Saichō to journey to China to further study Tiantai doctrine in China and bring back more texts. Saichō was expected to only remain in China for a short time however. Saichō could read Chinese but was unable to speak it at all, thus he was allowed to bring a trusted disciple along named , who apparently could speak Chinese. Gishin would later become one of the head monks of the Tendai order after Saichō. Saichō was part of the four-ship diplomatic mission to Tang China in 803. The ships were forced to turn back due to heavy winds, where they spent some time at Dazaifu, Fukuoka. During this time, Saichō likely met another passenger, Kūkai, a fellow Buddhist monk who was sent to China on a similar mission though he was expected to stay much longer. When the ships set sail again, two sank during a heavy storm, but Saichō's ship arrived at the port of Ningbo, then known as Mingzhou (), in northernFounding of Tendai
On his return from China, Saichō worked hard to win recognition from the court and "in the first month of 806, Saichō's Tendai Lotus school (''Tendai-hokke-shū'' 天台法華宗) won official recognition when the court of the ailing emperor Kanmu issued another edict, this one permitting two annual ordinands (''nenbundosha'') for Saichō's new school on Mount Hiei. This edict states that, following Saichō's request, the ordinands would be divided between two curricula: the ''shanagō'' course, centering on the study of the Mahavairocana Sūtra (this was the Mikkyō curriculum, shana being the abbreviation for Birushana, the Japanese transliteration of Vairocana), and the shikangō course, based on the study of the '' Mohe Zhiguan'', the seminal work of the Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi 智顗 (538–597) (this was the Tendai curriculum, ''shikan'' being the Japanese reading of Zhiyi's central practice of ''zhiguan'' essation and contemplation (''Kenkairon engi'', DZ 1, pp. 294–296). Thus from its very inception the Tendai Lotus school was equally based on Mikkyō and Tiantai. It was as a subdivision of Saichō's new school that Mikkyō first received the official acknowledgment of the imperial court and became a proper subject of study in Japanese Buddhism. In 813, Saichō wrote the ''Ehyō tendaishū'' (DZ 1, pp. 343–366), in which he argued that the leading Buddhist figures of China and Korea based their teachings on Tiantai doctrine when composing their own works. In citing many references to and quotations from Tiantai texts in the writings of notable figures such as Jizang (吉藏) of the Sanlun school, Zhi Zhou of the Faxiang school, Fazang of the Huayan school, Yi Xing of Mikkyō, and other influential scholars, Saichō contended that Tiantai provided the foundational framework for all Asian Buddhism.Abe Ryūichi: Saichō and Kūkai: A conflict of interpretations. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies Vol: 22/1–2, pp. 103–137, 1995Relationship with Kūkai
Saichō journeyed to China accompanied by several other young monks, one of whom was Kūkai. During their time in China, Saichō developed a friendship with Kūkai, and they traveled together both to and from China. This relationship would play a significant role in shaping the future of Buddhism. In the final month of his stay in China, while waiting for his ship to arrive at the port city of Ming-chou, Saichō traveled to Yüeh-chou to gather additional Buddhist scriptures. At Lung-hsing ssu (龍興寺), he encountered the priest Shun-hsiao, with whom he later returned bearing esoteric (tantric) Buddhist texts. Saichō was captivated by these new teachings and became eager to explore them further. Upon returning, he discovered that Kūkai had already deeply studied these teachings and had amassed a large collection of Vajrayana texts. This bond would later influence the course of Tendai Buddhism. Saichō and Kūkai are widely regarded as the founders of the Japanese Tendai and Shingon schools, respectively, both of which became significant and enduring institutions. The two collaborated to introduce esoteric Buddhism (mikkyō) to Japan's cultural context. For instance, Saichō helped facilitate Kūkai's later performance of the Mikkyō initiation ritual (abhiṣeka, kanjō 灌頂) for the high priests of the Nara Buddhist establishment and the imperial dignitaries at the Heian court, even though Kūkai remained relatively unknown upon his return from Tang China. Saichō himself conducted an abhiṣeka (esoteric ritual consecration) for the court. Additionally, he supported the imperial donation of the mountain temple of Takaosan-ji, located northwest of Kyoto, to Kūkai as the first center for Shingon Buddhism. In turn, Kūkai responded to Saichō’s desire to integrate Mikkyō into Tendai by instructing Saichō and his disciples in esoteric Buddhist rituals and by providing them with various Mikkyō texts he had brought from China.Last days
By 822, Saichō petitioned the court to allow the monks at Mount Hiei to ordain under the Bodhisattva Precepts rather than the traditional ordination system of the '' prātimokṣa'', arguing that his community would be a purelyTeaching
Portrait of Dengyō Daishi (Saichō) at the METIntegration of the Perfect and Esoteric teachings
Saichō played a pivotal role in shaping the doctrinal and institutional framework of Japanese Buddhism, especially through his synthesis of the teachings of the Chinese Tiantai school and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism. This integration led to the establishment of a distinct form of Japanese Tendai that incorporated Esoteric practices (Taimitsu) while maintaining the central focus on the '' Lotus Sutra'' and the teachings of Zhiyi. Chinese Tiantai in the sixth century during the Sui dynasty, was characterized by its comprehensive approach to Buddhist teachings, which integrated both exoteric (public) and esoteric (secret) elements. When Saichō encountered this tradition in China during his studies from 804 to 805, he inherited its syncretic nature, which emphasized the unity of various Buddhist teachings. Saichō’s synthesis was influenced not only by the teachings of Tiantai but also by Esoteric Buddhism, which was gaining prominence in China at the time.Groner, Paul (1989). "The Lotus Sutra and Saicho's Interpretation of the Realization of Buddhahood with This Very Body". In Tanabe, George J.; Tanabe, Willa Jane (ed.). The Lotus Sutra in Japanese Culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. . pp. 61–62 Saichō's synthetic teaching came to be called ''"enmitsuzenkai":'' the union of the Perfect (En, i.e. Tiantai teachings), Esoteric (Mitsu), Meditation (Zen), and Precepts (Kai). In Japan, Saichō’s teachings diverged from the approaches of earlier Nara Buddhism, which largely adhered to exoteric doctrines. Saichō’s core innovation was his belief in the unity of the ''Lotus Sutra'' and Esoteric Buddhism, encapsulated in the term ''enmitsu itchi'' (円密一致), or "the identity of the meaning of Perfect and Esoteric teachings."Ōkubo Ryōshun 大久保良峻But the Vairocana school (''shanashu'' 遮那宗) and Tendai interfuse with one another. They also share the same commentary.... There should be no such thing as preferring one to the other. The ''Lotus'' and the ''Golden Light'' are those texts to which the previous emperor Emperor Kanmu">Kanmu">Emperor_Kanmu.html" ;"title="nowiki/>Emperor Kanmu">Kanmudevoted himself, and there exists no difference between the One Unifying Vehicle [of Tendai] and Shingon.For Saichō, the practices of Esoteric Buddhism did not replace the teachings of the ''Lotus Sutra'' but complemented them, providing a direct means (jikidō) to attain Buddhahood in this very life (''sokushin-jōbutsu''). This direct path contrasted with the more gradual approaches found in the Nara Buddhist schools, which Saichō believed took eons to lead to enlightenment. In the early years of the 9th century, Saichō returned to Japan and began to establish the Tendai school on Mount Hiei. He founded a new ordination system that allowed for the reception of the Bodhisattva precepts, which permitted one to become a bhikkhu, or monk, within the framework of the Mahāyāna tradition. This marked the formation of the Japanese "Mahāyāna ordination platform" (''dai jō kaidan''), which was distinct from the Vinaya traditions of the Nara schools. However, Saichō faced significant challenges. During his years of study, many of his early disciples left Mount Hiei, either defecting to the Hosso school or studying Esoteric Buddhism with Kūkai. Despite these challenges, Saichō continued to promote the integration of Esoteric practices within the Tendai system. He envisioned the practice of both exoteric (Lotus Sutra) and esoteric teachings as fundamental to the path of enlightenment. Yet, over time, Saichō began to realize that his vision of ''enmitsu itchi'' was not fully shared by Kūkai, particularly regarding the esoteric precepts and the nature of transmission. The relationship between Saichō and Kūkai eventually began to deteriorate due to differing interpretations of Esoteric practice and the role of secret teachings. Saichō’s commitment to maintaining the open study of Esoteric texts and his disagreements with Kūkai's exclusive and secretive approach to Esoteric Buddhism led to a public split. The split between Saichō and Kūkai had a lasting impact on the development of both Tendai and Shingon Buddhism in Japan. While Saichō’s final years were marked by increasing disagreements with other Buddhists of his time (especially with Hosso and
Buddha-nature
A central tenet of Saichō's Tendai teaching was the idea that "all sentient beings have Buddha-nature" (一切衆生悉有仏性, ''issai shujō shitsu u busshō''), which expresses a key teaching of the ''Lotus'' and '' Nirvana Sutras'' which sees all beings as having the universal potential to become Buddhas. While previous Nara schools, including the Hossō school, acknowledged this to some extent, Saichō and the Hossō school engaged in intense debates over their interpretation of buddha-nature. This was most famously discussed in Saichō's debate with Yogacara scholar Tokuitsu.新川哲雄「最澄における宗派意識の確立-一向大乗寺構想の検討から」『東洋文化研究』第10巻、学習院大学東洋文化研究所, pp. 438-442, 2008年。 Tokuitsu, while acknowledging universal Buddhahood, supported the theory of the five natures (or lineages), which posits that some beings (especially the icchantikas) lack the capacity to manifest buddha-nature through practice due to their " gotra" (lineage), a key theory found in Yogacara treatises. Saichō criticized this position as containing elements of Hinayana and asserted that all beings can attain Buddhahood as taught in the ''Lotus Sutra''. He further rejected the common Buddhist view that only exceptional beings like Shakyamuni could attain Buddhahood through their heroic bodhisattva practices and instead emphasized that "those who believe in the Buddha-nature of all beings, engage in altruistic practices, and advance on the path to Buddhahood are trueSaichō, the Japanese Tendai founder, countered in part by drawing on Huayan (J. Kegon) thinkers to argue that suchness has not only a quiescent aspect as universal principle (fuhen shinnyo), but also a dynamic aspect that manifests itself as the concrete forms of the phenomenal world (zuien shinnyo). He also maintained that suchness has the nature of realizing and knowing. Thus, there was no need to postulate seeds in the store consciousness of only certain individuals as the cause of buddhahood. Saichō equated suchness in its dynamic aspect with active buddha nature, and because suchness is universal, everyone has the potential to realize buddhahood.By integrating these insights, Saichō developed a unique perspective on Buddha-nature that elevated the empirical world as a vital sphere of enlightenment, in which, as the Huayan sutra states, “countless realms preach the dharma. The land preaches the dharma. And living beings preach the dharma.” Saichō teachings on buddha-nature contributed to the distinctive character of Japanese Tendai thought, becoming especially important in medieval Tendai original enlightenment theory. This current had a significant impact on later Japanese Buddhism.
Bodhisattva precepts and new ordination system
The Ordination Platform (kaidan) at Enryaku-ji Saichō initiated a significant reform of Buddhist monastic ordination by advocating for the sole use of Mahāyāna bodhisattva precepts in place of the traditional Hīnayāna vinaya precepts. This reform was central to his vision of establishing a purely Mahāyāna tradition in Japan, distinct from the Nara schools that relied on the Dharmaguptaka vinaya. Saichō’s reforms were deeply influenced by the '' Brahma Net Sutra'' (Fanwang jing), and the *Lotus Sutra*, which became foundational to Tendai interpretations of the precepts.Groner, Paul. "The Lotus Sutra and the Perfect-Sudden Precepts," ''Japanese Journal of Religious Studies'' 41/1: 103–131 © 2014 Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture The ''Brahma Net Sutra'' provided a set of ten major and forty-eight minor bodhisattva precepts, which Saichō adopted as the basis for ordination. However, the ''Lotus Sutra'' also played a crucial role in shaping Tendai views on the precepts. While the ''Lotus Sutra'' does not explicitly outline precepts in the form of rules, its teachings were interpreted by Tendai monks to support a wide range of positions on monastic discipline, from strict adherence to the vinaya to the complete transcendence of formal precepts. Saichō’s rejection of the vinaya precepts was rooted in his interpretation of the ''Lotus Sutra'' as the ultimate expression of the Buddha's teachings. In his early biography, the *Eizan Daishi den*, Saichō is quoted as vowing to abandon the 250 Hīnayāna precepts, declaring that he would no longer follow śrāvaka (Hīnayāna) practices. Instead, he emphasized the bodhisattva path as articulated in the ''Lotus Sutra'', which he believed revealed the true intent of the Buddha's teachings. This perspective was further supported by passages in the ''Lotus Sutra'', such as the “Comfortable Practices” (anrakugyō) chapter, which admonishes practitioners to avoid association with śrāvakas, thereby providing a rationale for rejecting Hīnayāna precepts.Groner, Paul. Saicho: ''The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School''. Berkeley: Berkeley Buddhist Studies Series, 1984. Saichō’s reforms laid the groundwork for the development of the “Perfect-Sudden Precepts” (endonkai), a concept that became central to Tendai monastic practice. These precepts were understood as being rooted in the ''Lotus Sutra'' and were seen as encompassing both the form and spirit of Mahāyāna practice. The Perfect-Sudden Precepts were not merely a set of rules but were interpreted as expressions of the inherent Buddha-nature within all beings. This view allowed for a more flexible approach to monastic discipline, emphasizing the intention behind actions rather than strict adherence to formal precepts. One of Saichō’s most significant achievements was his successful petition to establish a Mahāyāna precept platform (kaidan) on Mount Hiei. This platform was intended to serve as the site for conferring the bodhisattva precepts on Tendai monks, thereby creating a distinct ordination lineage. The establishment of the platform was a direct challenge to the Nara schools, which controlled the traditional vinaya ordination platforms. Despite strong opposition, Saichō’s efforts were posthumously approved by the imperial court in 822, and the platform was constructed in 827. The Mahāyāna precept platform marked a turning point in Japanese Buddhism, as it allowed for the ordination of monks solely based on bodhisattva precepts. This innovation not only solidified the Tendai school's identity as a purely Mahāyāna tradition but also set a precedent for other Japanese Buddhist schools, including Zen and Pure Land, which eventually adopted similar ordination practices. Saichō’s reforms had a profound and lasting impact on Japanese Buddhism. By replacing the vinaya precepts with the bodhisattva precepts, he established a new model of monastic ordination that emphasized the universality of the Mahāyāna path. This model became the normative standard for Buddhist ordination in Japan, influencing all major schools of Japanese Buddhism, including Rinzai and Sōtō Zen. Over time, the bodhisattva precepts were adapted and reinterpreted, leading to a more flexible approach to monastic discipline that allowed for the integration of lay practitioners and the eventual acceptance of married clergy.Works
Saichō wrote a number of texts which are important for the Tendai tradition. Some of his key writings include: *''The Treatise on Clarifying the Precepts'' (''Kenkairon'', 顕戒論), a key text that advocates for the establishment of the ''bodhisattva precepts'' as the primary ethical foundation for Japanese Tendai monks, instead of the traditional monastic precepts derived from the Indian ''Vinaya''. Saichō argues that the bodhisattva precepts are superior because they align with Mahayana ideals, emphasizing compassion and universal enlightenment rather than restrictive monastic codes. The text also supports the independence of the Tendai school from the Nara-based monastic establishment, reinforcing Saichō’s vision of a distinct Japanese Buddhist tradition centered on the Lotus Sutra and Mahayana ethics. *''Tract on the Defense of the Nation'' (''Shugo Kokkai Shō'', 守護國界章), a text that emphasizes the role of Buddhism, particularly the Tendai tradition, in protecting the nation. Saichō argues that the propagation of the Lotus Sutra and the observance of Mahayana precepts ensure the nation's stability and prosperity, asserting that spiritual purity and ethical conduct are vital for social harmony. The text reflects Saichō’s belief that the moral and spiritual strength of the sangha directly contributes to the well-being of the state. *''The Regulations for the Students of the Mountain School'' (''Sange Gakushō Shiki'', 山家學生式 ): This three part text outlines the rules for Tendai students studying on Mount Hiei. The first part specifies that students must receive the ten good precepts before becoming novices, then spend twelve years on Mount Hiei practicing meditation and studying the ''Mahāvairochana Sutra'' before assuming leadership roles. The second part provides detailed regulations, while the third part, presented in 819, distinguishes between Hinayana and Mahayana precepts, requiring students to specifically follow the Tendai Mahayana ordination ceremonies.See also
* Tendai * Annen (monk) * EnninReferences
Further reading
* Pruden, Leo; Rhodes, Robert; trans. (1994). ''The Essentials of the Eight Traditions and The Candle of the Latter Dharma'', Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.External links