Ruth Milne Hall (born 6 August 1945) is an Australian

microbiologist A microbiologist (from Greek ) is a scientist who studies microscopic life forms and processes. This includes study of the growth, interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi, and some types of par ...

whose research on mobile genetic elements in

bacteria Bacteria (; : bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one Cell (biology), biological cell. They constitute a large domain (biology), domain of Prokaryote, prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micr ...

has provided deep insight into the transfer and evolution of

antibiotic resistance Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from antimicrobials, which are drugs used to treat infections. This resistance affects all classes of microbes, including bacteria (antibiotic resis ...

in bacteria. She attended Hornsby Girls High School and graduated from the

University of Sydney The University of Sydney (USYD) is a public university, public research university in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1850, it is the oldest university in both Australia and Oceania. One of Australia's six sandstone universities, it was one of the ...

with a BSc(Hons) (1966) and MSc (1968) before taking up a scholarship to do a PhD course on bacterial genetics in the MRC Microbial Genetics Unit at the

University of Edinburgh The University of Edinburgh (, ; abbreviated as ''Edin.'' in Post-nominal letters, post-nominals) is a Public university, public research university based in Edinburgh, Scotland. Founded by the City of Edinburgh Council, town council under th ...

(awarded 1971).

Career

After returning to Australia she worked from 1972 to 1975 as a Senior Tutor in the Department of Biochemistry, Monash University and from 1976 to 1979 as a lecturer in the same department. Her research at Monash was on

mitochondrial biogenesis Mitochondrial biogenesis is the process by which cells increase mitochondrial numbers. It was first described by John Holloszy in the 1960s, when it was discovered that physical endurance training induced higher mitochondrial content levels, leadi ...

and genetics in the yeast ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''. In 1979-80 she was a Research Fellow in the Department of Microbiology at the John Curtin School of Medical Research,

Australian National University The Australian National University (ANU) is a public university, public research university and member of the Group of Eight (Australian universities), Group of Eight, located in Canberra, the capital of Australia. Its main campus in Acton, A ...

and in 1980-81 an EMBO Post Doctoral Research Fellow at the

Biozentrum University of Basel Research at the Biozentrum of the University of Basel is dedicated to the central question of how molecules and cells create life − from atom to organism, and from the physics of life to the dynamics of multicellular systems. Accordingly, the s ...

, Switzerland where she continued her work on the yeast. Again returning to Australia she joined in 1982 the research staff at the

CSIRO The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) is an Australian Government agency that is responsible for scientific research and its commercial and industrial applications. CSIRO works with leading organisations arou ...

Molecular and Cell Biology Unit, where she worked on integrons and antibiotic resistance genes which contributed to an understanding of how bacteria become resistant to many antibiotics simultaneously, and to a recognition of the risks posed in increased antibiotic use in medicine and agriculture. After her research unit at CSIRO was closed in 2003 she moved to the University of Sydney as adjunct professor in the School of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences, where her research on the molecular genetics and genomics of bacterial antibiotic resistance has identified further mechanisms for gene transfer between gram negative bacteria. She has been recognized with the highest awards in Australia for microbiology, received the Macfarlane Burnet Medal in 2012, the Order of Australia Medal in 2014 and was inducted into the National Health and Medical Research Council Hall of Fame in 2014.

Research

Bacteria can adapt rapidly to environmental pressures, including antibiotic use, through acquisition of further genes, and Hall has investigated the role of mobile genetic elements in the development of

multiple antibiotic resistance Multiple drug resistance (MDR), multidrug resistance or multiresistance is antimicrobial resistance shown by a species of microorganism to at least one antimicrobial drug in three or more antimicrobial categories. Antimicrobial categories are ...

and in bacterial evolution using different Gram negative pathogens including ''

Escherichia coli ''Escherichia coli'' ( )Wells, J. C. (2000) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Harlow ngland Pearson Education Ltd. is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus '' Escherichia'' that is commonly fo ...

'', ''

Salmonella enterica ''Salmonella enterica'' (formerly ''Salmonella choleraesuis'') is a rod-shaped, flagellate, facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative bacterium and a species of the genus ''Salmonella''. It is divided into six subspecies, arizonae (IIIa), diarizonae ...

'', ''

Klebsiella pneumoniae ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'' is a Gram-negative, non-motile, encapsulated, lactose- fermenting, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. It appears as a mucoid lactose fermenter on MacConkey agar. Although found in the normal flora of the mo ...

'' and '' Acinetobacter baumanni''. Hall's work has characterized a variety of mobile elements, including

plasmids A plasmid is a small, extrachromosomal DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. They are most commonly found as small circular, double-stranded DNA molecules in bacteria and ...

, genomic islands,

transposons A transposable element (TE), also transposon, or jumping gene, is a type of mobile genetic element, a nucleic acid sequence in DNA that can change its position within a genome. The discovery of mobile genetic elements earned Barbara McClinto ...

, gene cassettes and integrons. Gene cassettes are mobile genetic units each carrying only one gene which can be readily transferred into and between larger, stable genetic backbones called integrons that are responsible for moving the cassettes. The integron is also responsible for expression of the genes in cassettes. This exchange of genes between different bacteria enables rapid emergence of resistance under selection pressure of antibiotics. Hall's recent work has identified large antibiotic resistance gene clusters, including genomic resistance islands in ''Salmonella'', ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'' and in ''Acinetobacter baumanni'' and examined their evolution. Multiple antibiotic resistance in ''Acinetobacter baumanni'' is now being tracked using whole genome analysis. Spread of resistance between individuals is an increased risk among hospitalized and immunosuppressed patients with Hall's work identifying the role of

commensal bacteria Commensalism is a long-term biological interaction (symbiosis) in which members of one species gain benefits while those of the other species neither benefit nor are harmed. This is in contrast with mutualism, in which both organisms benefit fr ...

, including ''E. coli'' in the human colon in the spread of genes. Resistance genes can also reach the human food chain through subtherapeutic antibiotic use as growth promotants in

animal production Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, management, production, nutrition, selective breeding, and the raising of livestock. ...

, with Hall contributing to JETACAR (Joint Expert Advisory Committee on Antibiotic Resistance), which, in 2000, developed Australian Government policy on antibiotic use in agriculture. The risks of the rise of "superbugs" from the gene exchange processes described by Hall are recognized internationally as a threat to human health (WHO report on antibiotic resistance, May 2014).

Honours and awards

* 2003 Australian Society for Microbiology BioMerieux Identifying Resistance Award * 2005

American Society for Microbiology The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), originally the Society of American Bacteriologists, is a professional organization for scientists who study viruses, bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa as well as other aspects of microbiology. It wa ...

Sanofi-Aventis Award * 2005

Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science The Fellowship of the Australian Academy of Science is made up of about 500 Australian scientists. Scientists judged by their peers to have made an exceptional contribution to knowledge in their field may be elected to Fellowship of the Academy ...

* 2006 Rubbo Orator, Australian Society for Microbiology * 2010 Fellow of the

American Academy of Microbiology American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, p ...

* 2012

Macfarlane Burnet Medal and Lecture The Macfarlane Burnet Medal and Lecture is a biennial award given by the Australian Academy of Science to recognise outstanding scientific research in the biological sciences. It was established in 1971 and honours the memory of the Nobel laureat ...

Australian Academy of Science The Australian Academy of Science was founded in 1954 by a group of distinguished Australians, including Australian Fellows of the Royal Society of London. The first president was Sir Mark Oliphant. The academy is modelled after the Royal Soci ...

* 2014

Order of Australia Medal The Order of Australia is an Australian honour that recognises Australian citizens and other persons for outstanding achievement and service. It was established on 14 February 1975 by Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia, on the advice of then ...

* 2014

National Health and Medical Research Council The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) is the main statutory authority of the Australian Government responsible for medical research. It was the eighth largest research funding body in the world in 2016, and NHMRC-funded res ...

Hall of Fame

References

External links

*
Nla.govCsiropedia.csiro.auWho.intSydney.edu.auEcosmagazine.com
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hall, Ruth Milne 1945 births Living people Scientists from Sydney University of Sydney alumni Academic staff of the University of Sydney Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Australian women scientists Australian microbiologists Australian women microbiologists Fellows of the Australian Academy of Science Fellows of the American Academy of Microbiology