The Russian interregnum of 1825 began with the death of

Alexander I Alexander I may refer to: * Alexander I of Macedon, king of Macedon from 495 to 454 BC * Alexander I of Epirus (370–331 BC), king of Epirus * Alexander I Theopator Euergetes, surnamed Balas, ruler of the Seleucid Empire 150-145 BC * Pope Alex ...

Taganrog Taganrog (, ) is a port city in Rostov Oblast, Russia, on the north shore of Taganrog Bay in the Sea of Azov, several kilometers west of the mouth of the Don (river), Don River. It is in the Black Sea region. Population: Located at the site of a ...

and lasted until the accession of Nicholas I and the suppression of the

Decembrist revolt The Decembrist revolt () was a failed coup d'état led by liberal military and political dissidents against the Russian Empire. It took place in Saint Petersburg on , following the death of Emperor Alexander I. Alexander's brother and heir ...

on . In 1823 Alexander secretly removed his brother

Constantine Constantine most often refers to: * Constantine the Great, Roman emperor from 306 to 337, also known as Constantine I * Constantine, Algeria, a city in Algeria Constantine may also refer to: People * Constantine (name), a masculine g ...

from the

order of succession An order, line or right of succession is the line of individuals necessitated to hold a high office when it becomes vacated, such as head of state or an honour such as a title of nobility.heir presumptive An heir presumptive is the person entitled to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honour, but whose position can be displaced by the birth of a person with a better claim to the position in question. This is in contrast to an heir app ...

. This unprecedented secrecy backfired with a dynastic crisis that placed the whole

House of Romanov The House of Romanov (also transliterated as Romanoff; , ) was the reigning dynasty, imperial house of Russia from 1613 to 1917. They achieved prominence after Anastasia Romanovna married Ivan the Terrible, the first crowned tsar of all Russi ...

at peril. Only three men, apart from Alexander himself, were fully aware of his decision, and none of them was present in the

Winter Palace The Winter Palace is a palace in Saint Petersburg that served as the official residence of the House of Romanov, previous emperors, from 1732 to 1917. The palace and its precincts now house the Hermitage Museum. The floor area is 233,345 square ...

when the news of Alexander's death reached

Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg, formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad, is the List of cities and towns in Russia by population, second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the Neva, River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland ...

on 1825. Military governor

Mikhail Miloradovich Count Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich (, , ; – ), spelled Miloradovitch in contemporary English sources, was a Russian general prominent during the Napoleonic Wars. On his father’s side, Miloradovich descended from the Serb noble family ...

persuaded hesitant Nicholas to pledge allegiance to Constantine, who then lived in

Warsaw Warsaw, officially the Capital City of Warsaw, is the capital and List of cities and towns in Poland, largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the Vistula, River Vistula in east-central Poland. Its population is officially estimated at ...

as the

viceroy of Poland The Namiestnik (or Namestnik, Viceroy) of the Kingdom of Poland (, ) was the deputy of the Emperor of Russia who, under the Congress Kingdom of Poland (1815–1915), was styled "King of Poland". Between 1874 and 1914, the title ''Namiestnik'' was re ...

. The

State Council State Council may refer to: Government * State Council of the People's Republic of China, the national cabinet and chief administrative authority of China, headed by the Premier * State Council of the Republic of Korea, the national cabinet of S ...

, faced with a legal

Gordian Knot The cutting of the Gordian Knot is an Ancient Greek legend associated with Alexander the Great in Gordium in Phrygia, regarding a complex knot that tied an oxcart. Reputedly, whoever could untie it would be destined to rule all of Asia. In 33 ...

, concurred with Miloradovich; the civil government and the troops stationed in Saint Petersburg recognized Constantine as their sovereign – a sovereign who did not intend to reign. As ''

The Times of London ''The Times'' is a British daily national newspaper based in London. It began in 1785 under the title ''The Daily Universal Register'', adopting its modern name on 1 January 1788. ''The Times'' and its sister paper ''The Sunday Times'' (fo ...

'' observed, the Russian Empire had "two self-denying Emperors and no active ruler". Correspondence between Saint Petersburg and Warsaw, carried by mounted messengers, took two weeks. Constantine repeated his renunciation of the crown and blessed Nicholas as his sovereign but refused to come to Saint Petersburg, leaving the dangerous task of resolving the crisis to Nicholas alone. Evidence of the brewing

compelled Nicholas to act. In the first hour of he proclaimed himself

Emperor of All the Russias The emperor and autocrat of all Russia (, ), also translated as emperor and autocrat of all the Russias, was the official title of the Russian monarch from 1721 to 1917. The title originated in connection with Russia's victory in the Great Nor ...

. By noon the civil government and most of the troops of Saint Petersburg pledged allegiance to Nicholas but the Decembrists incited three thousand soldiers in support of Constantine and took a stand on Senate Square. Nicholas crushed the revolt at a cost of 1,271 livesNechkina, p. 117, analyzed different numbers from different sources. Nicholas released an estimate of 80 dead. The most credible report, according to Nechkina, was authored by S. N. Korsakov of Saint Petersburg police and counted 1,271 dead of whom 903 were civilians of low classes (, "the mob"). and became an undisputed sovereign. He ruled the empire in an authoritarian reactionary manner for 29 years. The first historic study of the interregnum, Modest von Korff's ''Accession of Nicholas I'', was commissioned by Nicholas himself. Memoirists, historians and fiction authors sought alternative explanations of the apparently irrational behaviour of the Romanovs.

Conspiracy theorists A conspiracy theory is an explanation for an event or situation that asserts the existence of a conspiracy (generally by powerful sinister groups, often political in motivation), when other explanations are more probable.Additional sources: * ...

named Alexander, Nicholas, Miloradovich and

Dowager Empress Empress dowager (also dowager empress or empress mother; ) is the English language translation of the title given to the mother or widow of a monarch, especially in regards to Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese monarchs in the Chinese cul ...

Maria Maria may refer to: People * Mary, mother of Jesus * Maria (given name), a popular given name in many languages Place names Extraterrestrial * 170 Maria, a Main belt S-type asteroid discovered in 1877 * Lunar maria (plural of ''mare''), large, ...

, alone or in various alliances, as the driving forces behind the events of November–December 1825.

Background

Four brothers

Alexander I of Russia Alexander I (, ; – ), nicknamed "the Blessed", was Emperor of Russia from 1801, the first king of Congress Poland from 1815, and the grand duke of Finland from 1809 to his death in 1825. He ruled Russian Empire, Russia during the chaotic perio ...

, the eldest of four sons of

Paul I Paul I may refer to: *Paul of Samosata (200–275), Bishop of Antioch *Paul I of Constantinople (died c. 350), Archbishop of Constantinople *Pope Paul I (700–767) *Paul I Šubić of Bribir (c. 1245–1312), Ban of Croatia and Lord of Bosnia *Paul ...

, had no male issue; his legitimate daughters died in infancy. According to the 1797

Pauline Laws The Pauline Laws are the house laws of the Romanov rulers of the Russian Empire. The name comes from the fact that they were initially established by Emperor Paul I of Russia in 1797. Previously drafted privately as a contract between Paul Petrov ...

his childless brother Constantine had been

heir presumptive An heir presumptive is the person entitled to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honour, but whose position can be displaced by the birth of a person with a better claim to the position in question. This is in contrast to an heir app ...

since Alexander's accession. The third brother,

Nicholas Nicholas is a male name, the Anglophone version of an ancient Greek name in use since antiquity, and cognate with the modern Greek , . It originally derived from a combination of two Ancient Greek, Greek words meaning 'victory' and 'people'. In ...

, followed him in the

order of succession An order, line or right of succession is the line of individuals necessitated to hold a high office when it becomes vacated, such as head of state or an honour such as a title of nobility.Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld separated in 1799. Juliane returned to Germany and resisted any proposals to resume their marriage. Constantine's involvement in the

Napoleonic Wars {{Infobox military conflict , conflict = Napoleonic Wars , partof = the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , image = Napoleonic Wars (revision).jpg , caption = Left to right, top to bottom:Battl ...

did not leave him with enough time or energy for a formal divorce. However, in 1815 he began an affair with

Joanna Grudzińska Joanna Grudzińska (17 May 1791, Poznań - 17 November 1831, Tsarskoye Selo) was a Polish noble, a Princess of Łowicz and the second wife of Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia, the ''de facto'' viceroy of the Kingdom of Poland. This mar ...

, forcing him finally to divorce Juliane in order to marry Joanna. Constantine divorced Juliane ''

in absentia ''In Absentia'' is the seventh studio album by British progressive rock band Porcupine Tree, first released on 24 September 2002. The album marked several changes for the band, with it being the first with new drummer Gavin Harrison and the f ...

'' on , 1820. On the same day Alexander appended the Pauline Laws with a principle that a marriage between a member of the House of Romanov and a person of lesser standing could not confer on the latter the rights of the House, and that their offspring were barred from the order of succession. On of the same year, Constantine married Joanna, who was created Duchess of

Łowicz Łowicz is a town in central Poland with 27,436 inhabitants (2021). It is situated in the Łódź Voivodeship. Together with a nearby station of Bednary, Łowicz is a major rail junction of central Poland, where the line from Warsaw splits into ...

. Constantine had no intention of ruling the Empire and retired to Warsaw as the viceroy of

Congress Poland Congress Poland or Congress Kingdom of Poland, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland, was a polity created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a semi-autonomous Polish state, a successor to Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw. It was established w ...

. According to Nicholas, Alexander told him of Constantine's decision to abdicate in 1819. According to

Michael Michael may refer to: People * Michael (given name), a given name * he He ..., a given name * Michael (surname), including a list of people with the surname Michael Given name * Michael (bishop elect)">Michael (surname)">he He ..., a given nam ...

, the youngest of four brothers, he learned about it from Constantine in the summer of 1821.Korff, p. 33. In both cases the speakers emphasized extreme secrecy of the matter. Korff wrote that Constantine's

renunciation Renunciation (or renouncing) is the act of rejecting something, particularly something that the renunciant has previously enjoyed or endorsed. In religion, renunciation often indicates an abandonment of pursuit of material comforts, in the inte ...

"was completed or, at all events, received its final arrangement" in the very end of 1821 when all four brothers reunited in Saint Petersburg.Korff, p. 36. On , 1822 Constantine sent "a humble petition" to Alexander, expressing his ''wish'' to pass the rights to the throne to the next in line, Nicholas. Two weeks later Alexander wrote to Constantine that the matter was still not resolved. The closing paragraph was especially ambiguous and could have been interpreted as leaving the final outcome in Constantine's hands: "It therefore remains to herself [Empress

] as well as to me ... to leave you ''fully at liberty'' to execute your ''irrevocable'' determination...".Korff, p. 40.

Secret manifesto

In the summer of 1823 minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs Alexander Golitsyn, acting on behalf of Alexander, asked Archbishop of Moscow Filaret to draft a formal manifesto that would seal the "final arrangement" made a year and a half earlier. Alexander's usual speechwriter

Mikhail Speransky Count Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky (; 12 January 1772 – 23 February 1839) was a Russian statesman and reformist during the reign of Alexander I of Russia, to whom he was a close advisor. Honorary member of the Free Economic Society (1801) a ...

was unaware of this.Korff, p. 43. Golitsyn instructed Filaret to lock the signed manifesto, in utmost secrecy, in the

sanctuary A sanctuary, in its original meaning, is a sacred space, sacred place, such as a shrine, protected by ecclesiastical immunity. By the use of such places as a haven, by extension the term has come to be used for any place of safety. This seconda ...

of the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Filaret feared that a document locked in Moscow could not influence the transfer of power to the successor, which would normally take place in Saint Petersburg, and objected to Alexander. The tsar reluctantly agreed and ordered Golitsyn to make three copies and deposit them in sealed envelopes in the

Synod A synod () is a council of a Christian denomination, usually convened to decide an issue of doctrine, administration or application. The word '' synod'' comes from the Ancient Greek () ; the term is analogous with the Latin word . Originally, ...

, the

Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...

and the

in Saint Petersburg.Korff, p. 44. Although Filaret insisted that at least the existence of these envelopes must be made known to reliable witnesses, the whole affair "has been preserved as in a tomb, the Imperial secret involving the existence of the empire". Alexander signed the manifesto in

Tsarskoye Selo Tsarskoye Selo (, , ) was the town containing a former residence of the Russian House of Romanov, imperial family and visiting nobility, located south from the center of Saint Petersburg. The residence now forms part of the Pushkin, Saint Peter ...

on , 1823 and brought it to Moscow himself on . According to Alexander's handwriting on the envelope it was "to be opened by the Diocesan of the See of Moscow and the General-Governor of Moscow in the cathedral of Assumption, ''before taking any other steps''."Korff, p. 49. Four days later Filaret took the envelope inside the cathedral, showed Alexander's seal to three priests and locked the Manifest in the

altar An altar is a table or platform for the presentation of religion, religious offerings, for sacrifices, or for other ritualistic purposes. Altars are found at shrines, temples, Church (building), churches, and other places of worship. They are use ...

. Governor of Moscow

Dmitry Golitsyn Prince Dmitry Vladimirovich Golitsyn (; 29 October 177127 March 1844, Paris) was an Imperial Russian cavalry general prominent during the Napoleonic Wars, statesman and military writer. Biography He was born in the Golitsyn family of Knyaz Vl ...

remained unaware of the affair altogether. The "Saint Petersburg copies", handwritten by Alexander Golitsyn and bearing Alexander's own handwriting on the envelopes, were filed three months later, raising short-lived speculations among the "completely ignorant dignitaries".Korff, p. 53. Apart from Alexander, only

Aleksey Arakcheyev Count Alexey Andreyevich Arakcheyev or Arakcheev (; b. in Garusovo – d. in Gruzino) was an Imperial Russian general and statesman during the reign of Tsar Alexander I. He served under Tsars Paul I and Alexander I as an army commander an ...

, Alexander Golitsyn and Filaret were certainly aware of the existence, contents and location of the manifesto and its copies.Schilder 1898, vol. 4 p. 388: "No one knew about the existence of the Act proclaiming Nicholas the Heir, apart from three statesmen: count Arakcheyev, prince A. I. Golitsyn and archbishop of Moscow Filaret." (). Modern historians contest this opinion, arguing that either Empress Maria or Miloradovich or both of them were fully aware of the Manifesto. According to Korff, Empress Maria was actively engaged in the events of 1821–1822 and knew of the "final arrangement" but not its implementation. Constantine, Nicholas, Michael and Alexander's wife Elisabeth knew even less. The reasons for unprecedented secrecy are unknown. Nicholas's bad reputation among the troops is a common explanation. Anatole Mazour wrote that Nicholas was "unacceptable to political circles and most unpleasant to military men"; as the inspector of the Guards he "aroused both the displeasures of higher officers and the hatred of the privates"; but Mazour also admitted that Constantine was "scarcely more agreeable to the military men". Riasanovsky suggested that Alexander wanted to retain freedom to change the 1823 manifesto at will.

Conspiracy

After the end of the

the Russian economy, ravaged by the

Continental System The Continental System or Continental Blockade () was a large-scale embargo by French emperor Napoleon I against the British Empire from 21 November 1806 until 11 April 1814, during the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21 No ...

and Napoleon's invasion, slid into a continuous economic crisis. Grain exports were high in 1816–1817, but in 1818–1819 Western European crops recovered and Russian exports plummeted. Landed gentry tried to restore lost income through

enclosure Enclosure or inclosure is a term, used in English landownership, that refers to the appropriation of "waste" or "common land", enclosing it, and by doing so depriving commoners of their traditional rights of access and usage. Agreements to enc ...

s and driving away redundant serf peasants, but Alexander outlawed the "emancipation" of serfs without land. Economic downfall fuelled radical opposition inside the

Russian nobility The Russian nobility or ''dvoryanstvo'' () arose in the Middle Ages. In 1914, it consisted of approximately 1,900,000 members, out of a total population of 138,200,000. Up until the February Revolution of 1917, the Russian noble estates staffed ...

: "it was Alexander's failures to live up to their hopes that led them to take on the task themselves". The imperial treasury was bankrupted by rising state debt and falling revenues. Alexander was aware of the crisis but never tackled its root cause, the oversized peacetime army of 800,000 men.Kagan, pp. 11, 34. Alexander expected future wars in Southern Europe and the Middle East, and feared that mass dismissal of veteran soldiers would cause insurrection. He could not let them go: they were not needed in their native villages, and there were no jobs in the cities. Instead of reducing the army to an affordable peacetime size, Alexander tried to cut spending through the establishment of self-sustaining

military settlement Military settlements () represented a special organization of the Russian military forces in 1810–1857, which allowed the combination of military service and agricultural employment. The beginning of the reform The Emperor Alexander I of Rus ...

s, which failed "from start to finish". He replaced expensive field maneuvers with drill exercise and parades, alienating experienced commanders and contributing to dissatisfaction of the nobility.Kagan, p. 33. The first secret organization aspiring to change the system was formed by the veterans of Napoleonic Wars in February 1816. Their aims varied from establishing a

constitutional monarchy Constitutional monarchy, also known as limited monarchy, parliamentary monarchy or democratic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in making decisions. ...

to "getting rid of foreigners and alien influence". Some even considered murdering Alexander I after Sergey Trubetskoy reported a rumour that Alexander was planning to incorporate

western provinces Western Canada, also referred to as the Western provinces, Canadian West, or Western provinces of Canada, and commonly known within Canada as the West, is a Canadian region that includes the four western provinces just north of the Canada–Unit ...

into

. In 1818 the organization was reformed into the

Union of Prosperity The Union of Prosperity () or Union of Welfare was a larger secret society of the Decembrists, established in early 1818 on the basis of the dissolved Union of Salvation and contained the literary society, the Green Lamp. Members The members of ...

. In the same year

Pavel Pestel Colonel Pavel Ivanovich Pestel (; – ) was a Russian revolutionary and ideologue of the Decembrists. Early life Pavel Pestel was born in Moscow on . He came from a Lutheran family of Saxon descent that had settled in Russia during the r ...

, the most radical conspirator, relocated to

Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...

and began actively recruiting Army officers, the core of the future Southern Society. In January 1821 internal conflicts between the radical South and the aristocratic North led to the dissolution of the Union of Prosperity. Members of the Northern Society indulged in writing elaborate aristocratic constitutions while Pestel and his ring settled on changing the regime by military force. Pestel's own political program, influenced by

Antoine Destutt de Tracy Antoine Louis Claude Destutt, comte de Tracy (; 20 July 1754 – 9 March 1836) was a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher who coined the term "ideology". Biography The son of a distinguished soldier, Claude Destutt, he was born in ...

Adam Smith Adam Smith (baptised 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish economist and philosopher who was a pioneer in the field of political economy and key figure during the Scottish Enlightenment. Seen by some as the "father of economics"——— or ...

Baron d'Holbach Paul Thiry, Baron d'Holbach (; ; 8 December 1723 – 21 January 1789), known as d'Holbach, was a Franco-German philosopher, encyclopedist and writer, who was a prominent figure in the French Enlightenment. He was born in Edesheim, near Landau ...

and

Jeremy Bentham Jeremy Bentham (; 4 February Dual dating, 1747/8 Old Style and New Style dates, O.S.

5 February 1748 Old Style and New Style dates, N.S. 5 (five) is a number, numeral and digit. It is the natural number, and cardinal number, following 4 and preceding 6, and is a prime number. Humans, and many other animals, have 5 digits on their limbs. Mathematics 5 is a Fermat pri ...

– 6 June 1832) was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer regarded as the founder of mo ...

envisioned "one nation, one government, one language" for the whole country, a uniform Russian-speaking entity with no concessions to ethnic or religious minorities, even the

Finns Finns or Finnish people (, ) are a Baltic Finns, Baltic Finnic ethnic group native to Finland. Finns are traditionally divided into smaller regional groups that span several countries adjacent to Finland, both those who are native to these cou ...

or the

Mongols Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family o ...

. Contrary to the aspirations of the Northern Society, Pestel planned to reduce the influence of landed and financial aristocracy, "the main obstacle to national welfare that could be eliminated only under a republican form of government." Pestel's influence gradually radicalized the Northern Society and helped in bringing the two groups together. Twice, in 1823 and 1824, the North and the South planned joint strikes against Alexander. The Southern terrorists subscribed to kidnap or kill Alexander during military maneuvers, the North was tasked with inciting revolt in Saint Petersburg. In both cases Alexander changed his itinerary and evaded the rebels. His informers reported a fragmented picture of the conspiracy; Alexander had no

secret police image:Putin-Stasi-Ausweis.png, 300px, Vladimir Putin's secret police identity card, issued by the East German Stasi while he was working as a Soviet KGB liaison officer from 1985 to 1989. Both organizations used similar forms of repression. Secre ...

and managed the investigation personally on an ''

ad hoc ''Ad hoc'' is a List of Latin phrases, Latin phrase meaning literally for this. In English language, English, it typically signifies a solution designed for a specific purpose, problem, or task rather than a Generalization, generalized solution ...

'' basis. Pestel's third plan shifted the center of insurgence to Saint Petersburg but the death of Alexander caught the conspirators unprepared.

Death of Alexander

On , 1825 Alexander left Saint Petersburg to accompany the ailing Empress Elizabeth to

spa A spa is a location where mineral-rich spring water (sometimes seawater) is used to give medicinal baths. Spa health treatments are known as balneotherapy. The belief in the curative powers of mineral waters and hot springs goes back to pre ...

treatment in

, then a "rather agreeable town" on the coast of the

Sea of Azov The Sea of Azov is an inland Continental shelf#Shelf seas, shelf sea in Eastern Europe connected to the Black Sea by the narrow (about ) Strait of Kerch, and sometimes regarded as a northern extension of the Black Sea. The sea is bounded by Ru ...

. Golitsyn pleaded with Alexander to publish the secret manifesto of 1823 but the emperor refused: "Let us rely on God. He will know how to order things better than us mortals." The statesmen who accompanied Alexander – Pyotr Volkonsky,

Hans Karl von Diebitsch Hans Karl Friedrich Anton Graf von Diebitsch und Narten (; 13 May 1785 – 10 June 1831) was a German-born soldier serving as Russian field marshal. Career Hans Karl was educated at the Berlin cadet school, but by the desire of his father ...

and

Alexander Chernyshyov Prince Alexander Ivanovich Chernyshyov (; 1786, Moscow – 1857, Castellammare di Stabia), General of Cavalry (1827), was a Russian military leader, diplomat and statesman, whose career began in the Napoleonic Wars. After the Battle of Auster ...

– were not aware of the manifesto. Alexander and Elizabeth traveled to the south separately; he reached Taganrog , she ten days later.Troyat, p. 286. Their relations had considerably improved since the death of Alexander's illegitimate daughter Sophie Naryshkina in June 1824. The reunion in Taganrog, according to Volkonsky, became the couple's second honeymoon (Wortman noted that this and similar sentimental opinions, influenced by Nicholas's propaganda, should not be taken literallyWortman, p. 130.). After a stay with Elizabeth, Alexander left Taganrog on a tour of

Crimea Crimea ( ) is a peninsula in Eastern Europe, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, almost entirely surrounded by the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. The Isthmus of Perekop connects the peninsula to Kherson Oblast in mainland Ukrain ...

that was cut short by a bout of "bilious remittent fever" that struck Alexander on in

Alupka Alupka (Ukrainian language, Ukrainian and Russian language, Russian: ; ; , Alòpex) is a resort city located in the Crimea, Crimean peninsula, a territory of Ukraine currently annexed by Russian Federation (see 2014 Crimean crisis). It is located ...

. Return to Taganrog brought no improvement; on November 10 Alexander lost consciousness for the first time. He "strenuously refused all medical assistance" of his

Scottish Scottish usually refers to something of, from, or related to Scotland, including: *Scottish Gaelic, a Celtic Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family native to Scotland *Scottish English *Scottish national identity, the Scottish ide ...

physician James Wylie. Diebitsch reported the state of Alexander's health to Constantine in Warsaw. The disease consumed Alexander and on it seemed that he was in terminal agony. Only then did Diebitsch and Volkonsky notify the court in Saint Petersburg of the inevitable. Alexander struggled for two more days and died at 10:50 on . At the moment of Alexander's demise, Constantine and Michael stayed in Warsaw,Korff, p. 61. Nicholas and Empress Maria in Saint Petersburg. Of the three men entrusted with full knowledge of Alexander's manifest, only Golitsyn was present in Saint Petersburg. Diebitsch promptly dispatched a courier to ''His Majesty Emperor Constantine'' in Warsaw; a second courier left for Saint Petersburg with a letter for Empress Maria. The courier to Warsaw, owing to shorter distance and better roads, arrived at Constantine's palace two days ahead of the courier sent to Saint Petersburg. Constantine and Michael received the news in the eveningKorff, p. 64 and Schilder 1898, vol. 4 p. 398: 7 p.m. of .Korff, p. 61. Constantine immediately assembled his court and publicly renounced any claims to the throne. He spent all night drafting the responses to Diebitsch and to ''His Majesty Emperor Nicholas'' and Empress Maria in Saint Petersburg. The messenger, Grand Duke Michael, left Warsaw after dinner on .Korff, p. 66.

Interregnum in Saint Petersburg

Miloradovich

In the evening of Governor-General of Saint Petersburg

brought the news of Alexander's terminal illness to Nicholas. News of Alexander's death arrived in Saint Petersburg on . After a brief meeting with his mother Nicholas publicly pledged his oath to ''Emperor Constantine''. While the public took the decision for granted, Maria was startled: "Nicholas, what have you done? Didn't you know that ''you'' are

?" The oath sparked an unprecedented dynastic crisis: two principal contenders forfeited their rights in favor of each other in "a hitherto unheard-of struggle — a struggle not for the acquisition of power, but for its renunciation!". The throne remained vacant. Nicholas took the secret of his decision to his grave. According to Korff, Nicholas did not know the provisions of the 1823 manifest and merely executed his legal and moral obligations. According to Sergey Trubetskoy, Nicholas was well aware of his rights but Miloradovich and general

Alexander Voinov Alexander () is a male name of Greek origin. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Variants listed here are A ...

compelled him to step back. They met with Nicholas late in the evening of December 7. Miloradovich argued that Nicholas can not reign unless Constantine abdicates in public ''as a reigning Emperor''. Independent action by Nicholas, said Miloradovich, will provoke a civil war because the troops will stand for Constantine. Nicholas reluctantly submitted to the military opposition. Schilder,Gordin, p. 26. Hugh Seton-Watson,Seton-Watson, p. 194. Gordin, Andreeva accepted Trubetskoy's account as genuine. Safonov dismissed it as disinformation planted by Nicholas to justify his moment of weakness. Miloradovich temporarily assumed

dictator A dictator is a political leader who possesses absolute Power (social and political), power. A dictatorship is a state ruled by one dictator or by a polity. The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to r ...

ial power. From this moment and until the outbreak of the Decembrist revolt Miloradovich maintained a confident demeanor and persuaded Nicholas that "the city is quiet and tranquil" despite mounting evidence to the contrary. Immediately after Nicholas's oath to Constantine Miloradovich instructed military commanders to administer the oath in their units. Miloradovich broke the law twice: by initiating the oath without Constantine's own accession manifest, and by initiating the oath in the troops before the civil government was sworn in. Miloradovich also took care of the original Manifest. His messenger arrived in Moscow on , and informed governor

that Constantine was now Emperor, that the city administration must be sworn immediately and that "a certain packet which has been deposited in 1823 in the Cathedral" must remain sealed.Korff, p. 102. Filaret objected but was compelled to accept the facts. Moscow was sworn to Constantine , the 1st Army in

Mogilev Mogilev (; , ), also transliterated as Mahilyow (, ), is a city in eastern Belarus. It is located on the Dnieper, Dnieper River, about from the Belarus–Russia border, border with Russia's Smolensk Oblast and from Bryansk Oblast. As of 2024, ...

on .

State council

Alexander Golitsyn rushed to Nicholas as soon as he learned of the ''

fait accompli Many words in the English vocabulary are of French language, French origin, most coming from the Anglo-Norman language, Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman conquest of England, Norman ...

''. Their meeting revealed the depth of the legal crisis that Nicholas had just made worse. Nicholas refused to act contrary to his oath to Constantine; both parties "separated with evident coolness". At 2 p.m. Golitsyn opened the extraordinary session of the State Council. He explained that a copy of Alexander's manifest, written by his own hand, was waiting for the occasion right there, in State Council files, and "bitterly deprecated the unnecessary precipitation in taking the oath". Minister of Justice Lobanov-Rostovsky and admiral Shishkov opposed, insisting on the legality of oath to Constantine, but the majority temporarily leaned towards Golitsyn's stance. Miloradovich, again, interfered in favor of Constantine. According to Trubetskoy, who attended at the Council meeting, the Manifest was presented as Alexander's

will Will may refer to: Common meanings * Will and testament, instructions for the disposition of one's property after death * Will (philosophy), or willpower * Will (sociology) * Will, volition (psychology) * Will, a modal verb - see Shall and will ...

, rather than a

law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...

. Miloradovich argued that the Emperor may not appoint a successor through a ''will'' that contradicts pre-existing ''laws'' of succession; the Council can examine the will but may not ''act'' upon it.Trubetskoy, p. 30. According to Korff, the Council opened the secret envelope and read the manifest, but Miloradovich barred further talks with an argument that the manifest was already void: "Nicholas has solemnly renounced the right conferred upon him by the said Manifest."Korff, p. 89. Council members suddenly found themselves in an inconvenient position of "a state authority rather than His Majesty's

chancery Chancery may refer to: Offices and administration * Court of Chancery, the chief court of equity in England and Wales until 1873 ** Equity (law), also called chancery, the body of jurisprudence originating in the Court of Chancery ** Courts of e ...

".Korff, p. 90. Instead of acting on their own they herded into Nicholas' waiting room. Nicholas once again repeated his refusal of the throne and personally administered the council members' oath to Constantine. By the end of the day the case appeared to be closed and couriers rushed the news of Constantine's accession to all corners of the empire.

Indecision

On Grand Duke Michael brought Constantine's letters to Saint Petersburg. Michael and Empress Maria persuaded Nicholas in the grave error he had made. Nicholas, now confident in his right to take the throne, realised that simply declaring himself emperor would, most likely, cause an insurrection. The only choice left, it seemed, was to invite Constantine to Saint Petersburg and have him formally abdicate in public. On the same day a courier rushed the invitation to Warsaw. On , Nicholas received a brief letter from Constantine, who firmly refused to travel to the capital, thus denying Nicholas any help in the succession crisis. "If everything is not arranged in accordance with our late Emperor's will", warned Constantine, "I shall remove into a still more distant retirement." Government officials of all ranks expected the new tsar just as eagerly. On , Minister of Finance

Georg von Cancrin Count Georg Ludwig Cancrin (; 16 November 1774 – 10 September 1845) was a Russian German aristocrat and politician best known for spearheading reforms in the Russian financial system early in the 19th century. Early life Cancrin was born in H ...

ordered

minting Minting is a village and civil parish in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. The village is situated south from the A158 road The A158 road is a major route that heads from Lincoln, Lincolnshire, Lincoln in the west to Ske ...

of a new coin bearing the profile of ''Emperor and Autocrat Constantine''. Cancrin attended the meeting of the State Council and was fully aware of the unfolding controversy, yet acted in confidence that Constantine was ''the'' emperor. This confidence persisted despite the suspicious silence of Grand Duke Michael and his retinue. Michael did not pledge allegiance to Constantine and evaded all inquiries about ''His Majesty''. Rumours and speculations made Michael's presence in the palace intolerable and the family council dominated by Empress Maria decided that he must return to Warsaw and personally persuade Constantine to come to Saint Petersburg. Maria gave Michael a

mandate Mandate most often refers to: * League of Nations mandates, quasi-colonial territories established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, 28 June 1919 * Mandate (politics), the power granted by an electorate Mandate may also r ...

to intercept and read all letters that Constantine could send to her. Michael met with Constantine's courier at Nennal on . He understood that his mission could not change Constantine's will and decided that he might be more useful to the House in Saint Petersburg rather than Warsaw. He was not mistaken; his arrival in Saint Petersburg on the day of Decembrist revolt became a vital factor in persuading the troops in favor of Nicholas.Korff, p. 130.

Last warnings

At 6 a.m. Saturday, , Colonel Frederics brought Nicholas the "most urgent" report of the mounting conspiracy. The report, authored by Diebitsch and handwritten by Chernyshyov, was addressed to ''His Majesty Emperor Constantine'' – one copy to Saint Petersburg, another one to Warsaw. Hesitating, Nicholas opened the package and "was overwhelmed with unspeakable horror" of the conspiracy among his own Guards. Diebitsch was confident in containing mutiny in his troops but, as for the rebels in Saint Peterburg and Moscow, he could only provide names. Nicholas, still hoping to "conceal the whole affair in the closest secrecy" particularly from his mother, summoned Miloradovich and Alexander Golitsyn – the men who already earned his displeasure but whose offices were vital in maintaining order. A quick search for the people named by Diebitsch brought no result: all were away on

furlough A furlough (; from , "leave of absence") is a temporary cessation of paid employment that is intended to address the special needs of a company or employer; these needs may be due to economic conditions that affect a specific employer, or to thos ...

, said Miloradovich, and again assured Nicholas that "the city is tranquil". In fact, one person named in the report,

cornet The cornet (, ) is a brass instrument similar to the trumpet but distinguished from it by its conical bore, more compact shape, and mellower tone quality. The most common cornet is a transposing instrument in B. There is also a soprano cor ...

Svistunov, was present in Saint Peterburg and actively coordinated the rebels. At 9 p.m. of the same day Nicholas received a cryptic and threatening message from

Yakov Rostovtsev Iakov Ivanovich Rostovtsev ( – ) was a leading figure in the formulation of statutes which effectively Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia, emancipated the Russian serfs. Biography Born in St Petersburg, Russia, Rostovtsev became a career so ...

.Rostovtsev, a Guards lieutenant recently inducted into the Northern Society, suffered from extreme

stuttering Stuttering, also known as stammering, is a speech disorder characterized externally by involuntary repetitions and prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases as well as involuntary silent pauses called blocks in which the person who ...

and presented his report in writing. Rostovtsev stuttered for his whole life, yet reached a full general's rank. In 1849 Nicholas appointed Rostovtsev to investigate the case of the

Petrashevsky Circle The Petrashevsky Circle was a Russian literary discussion group of progressive-minded intellectuals in St. Petersburg in the 1840s. It was organized by Mikhail Petrashevsky, a follower of the French utopian socialist Charles Fourier. Among the me ...

. Rostovtsev personally interrogated young

Fyodor Dostoyevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky. () was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist and journalist. He is regarded as one of the greatest novelists in both Russian literature, Russian and world literature, and many of his works are consider ...

and supervised his

mock execution A mock execution is a stratagem in which a victim is deliberately but falsely made to feel that their execution or that of another person is imminent or is taking place. This might involve blindfolding the subjects, telling them they are about to ...

. - Payne, p. 91. Rostovtsev's report did not specify any names but threatened Nicholas with a multitude of disasters. Surprisingly well informed about the correspondence between Saint Petersburg and Warsaw, Rostovtsev advised Nicholas to go to Warsaw himself rather than wait for Constantine. His report, "a candle to the Lord and to Satan",Mazour, p. 163. sounded like an

ultimatum An ; ; : ultimata or ultimatums) is a demand whose fulfillment is requested in a specified period of time and which is backed up by a coercion, threat to be followed through in case of noncompliance (open loop). An ultimatum is generally the ...

: "You have seriously irritated a great number against you. In the name of your own glory I entreat you not to hasten to reign." Nicholas did not heed Rostovtsev's proposals which ran completely contrary to his plans. In another irrational twist, he treated Rostovtsev with respect and affection, and shielded him from prosecution.

Accession of Nicholas

Decision

In the afternoon of Nicholas received a letter from Constantine. Once again, Constantine refused to come to Saint Peterburg and blessed Nicholas onto the throne. The letter "terminated all indecision" and started the countdown of "a virtual coup d'etat".Wortman, p. 129. Nicholas sent a courier for Michael and summoned

Nikolay Karamzin Nikolay Mikhailovich Karamzin () was a Russian historian, writer, poet and critic. He is best remembered for his fundamental ''History of the Russian State'', a 12-volume national history. Early life Karamzin was born in the small village of ...

to prepare the draft of his accession manifest. He then summoned three key officials representing the Church, the Guards and the civil government, and ordered them to convene a State Council meeting at 8 p.m. of the next day. The timing, thought Nicholas, allowed just enough time to bring in Michael, the living proof of his good faith. The rest of the government, and most importantly the troops, were to be sworn on the following morning. Nicholas wrote: "On the 14th I will be Emperor or dead." Twenty-three members of the State Council arrived in due time but Nicholas delayed the announcement for hours, waiting for Michael. Soon after midnight, in the very beginning of , Nicholas realized that no more delays were possible, and walked into the Council hall alone. He "seated himself in the place of the President" and read his accession manifest. This, according to Korff, was the first ever precedent when the State Council convened at night. Nicholas went at lengths in explaining how the legal uncertainty set by Alexander lured him into pledging allegiance to Constantine. He specifically required "that the time of Our accession to the Throne be counted from the 19th day of November 1825", the day of Alexander's death, sealing the fact that Constantine had never reigned and that the oath to Constantine was merely a misunderstanding rectified by Nicholas. The State Council accepted the fact without further discussion and was dismissed at about 1 a.m.Korff, p. 168.

Revolt

, "the longest day" of Nicholas I, coincided with the

winter solstice The winter solstice, or hibernal solstice, occurs when either of Earth's geographical pole, poles reaches its maximum axial tilt, tilt away from the Sun. This happens twice yearly, once in each hemisphere (Northern Hemisphere, Northern and So ...

: the sun rose at 9:04 and set at 2:58. Nicholas assembled military commanders before sunrise. He again explained the background and motives for his decision. There were no objections, and the officers left to administer the oath to Nicholas in their units. Miloradovich did not attend this meeting. He arrived at the palace later and again assured Nicholas of "calm and tranquility", dismissing available intelligence. His police spectacularly failed in "a concurrence of other strange blunders, which it is difficult to explain at present". Nicholas made a blunder of his own, by not printing and distributing copies of the Manifest and thus contributing to the rising agitation among civilians. Decembrists were disorganized: their "dictator" Sergey Trubetskoy did not show up at all, "the bravest men among the leaders developed an apathy and unwonted lack of nerve." Like the tsar, they did not attempt to recruit civilian masses.Mazour, p. 176. Oath in the troops proceeded smoothly until the men of Horse Artillery Regiment demanded personal assurance from Grand Duke Michael. Michael had just arrived in Saint Petersburg and Nicholas immediately sent him to speak to the troops. At about noon Nicholas learned of the greater threat, the insurrection of the Moscow Regiment. Shouting "Hurrah for Constantine", the rebels took a stand in formation on the Senate Square, encouraged by the masses of civilians. By noon the rebel forces on the square counted three thousand men, against already present nine thousand loyalists. Nicholas was there, "pale, weary, and eager to settle the whole affair as soon as possible." At around 12:30 Miloradovich tried to speak to the rebel troops and was fatally shot by

Pyotr Kakhovsky Pyotr Grigoryevich Kakhovsky (, 1799 – ) was a Russian officer and active participant of the Decembrist revolt, known for the murder of General Mikhail Miloradovich and Colonel Ludwig Niklaus von Stürler. Biography Pyotr Kakhovsky was born i ...

and stabbed by

Yevgeny Obolensky Prince Yevgeny Petrovich Obolensky (, – ) was a Russian officer from the Obolensky family, one of the most active participants in the Decembrist revolt. Biography Yevgeny Obolensky was born in family of Prince Pyotr Nikolaevich Obolensky (17 ...

Wilhelm Küchelbecker Wilhelm Ludwig von Küchelbecker (; in St. Petersburg – in Tobolsk) was a Russian Romantic poet and Decembrist revolutionary of German descent. Life Born into a Baltic German noble family, he spent his childhood in what is now Estonia a ...

attempted shooting Grand Duke Michael. Another negotiator, Metropolitan Serafim, was forced away from the square. Nicholas, still hoping to avoid bloodshed, ordered an intimidating

cavalry charge A charge is an offensive maneuver in battle in which combatants advance towards their enemy at their best speed in an attempt to engage in a decisive close combat. The charge is the dominant shock attack and has been the key tactic and decis ...

against the rebels. It miserably failed as horses lost balance and fell on icy pavement. As time passed by, civilians flooded the square, forming a dense circle around the loyalists troops. Nicholas feared that the mob may overwhelm his troops after sunset. Worse, he saw his own soldiers defecting to the rebels.Mazour, p. 178; Nechkina, p. 115. Generals pressed Nicholas for action,

Karl Wilhelm von Toll Count Karl Wilhelm von Toll ( ; 9 April 1777 – 5 May 1842) was a Baltic German aristocrat and Russian subject who served in the Imperial Russian Army in the campaigns against the Napoleonic Army. Origins Karl Wilhelm von Toll was the son o ...

reproached him: "Let me clear the square with gunfire, or else you must abdicate!".Mazour, p. 78 At around 4 p.m. Nicholas ordered artillery fire against the rebels who did not dare to attack the batteries or otherwise change the outcome in their favour.

Canister shot Canister shot is a kind of anti-personnel artillery ammunition. It has been used since the advent of gunpowder-firing artillery in Western armies, and saw particularly frequent use on land and at sea in the various wars of the 18th and 19th cent ...

s killed more civilians than rebel soldiers.Nechkina, p. 116. Their flight from the square was checked by loyalist battalions blocking escape routes. Tsarist propaganda reported 80 dead, later studies counted at least 1,271 dead, 903 of them civilians of low birth.

Aftermath

The Southern Society attempted their own revolt: one thousand men of the Chernigov Regiment led by

Sergey Muravyov-Apostol Sergey Ivanovich Muravyov-Apostol () ( – ) was a Russian Imperial Lieutenant Colonel and one of the organizers of the Decembrist revolt. He was one of five Decembrists executed for their roles in attempting to reform the Russian autocr ...

and

Mikhail Bestuzhev-Ryumin Mikhail Pavlovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin (; – ) was a Russian officer, one of the organizers of the Decembrist revolt. He was the youngest of the five hanged Decembrists. Biography Mikhail Bestuzhev-Ryumin was born in the village Kudryoshky () o ...

ravaged Ukrainian towns and evaded government troops until a defeat at Kovalivka on , 1826. Hugh Seton-Watson wrote that it was "the first and the last political revolt by army officers"; Nicholas and his successors eradicated liberalism in the troops and secured their unconditional loyalty. Immediately after suppressing the revolt in Saint Petersburg Nicholas took control of the investigation. Of six hundred suspects 121 were put on trial. Five leaders were hanged, others exiled to

Siberia Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...

; Nicholas commuted most sentences in a demonstration of good will, sending the least offenders to fight as soldiers in the

Caucasian War The Caucasian War () or the Caucasus War was a 19th-century military conflict between the Russian Empire and various peoples of the North Caucasus who resisted subjugation during the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. It consisted of a series o ...

. Soldiers of the mutinous regiments were run through the gauntlet. Some died, others ended up fighting in the Caucasus or exiled in Siberia. According to Anatole Mazour, the sentence was unusually harsh and revengeful; according to Seton-Watson, it was in line with European practice of the time, but nevertheless contributed to public perception of Nicholas as "a dark and sinister figure" and of the Decembrists as selfless martyrs. "Challenge to Nicholas rule created an atmosphere of hostility, bitterness and fear ... it remained imprinted in Nicholas's mind as a traumatic moment that justified intensified surveillance and police persecution." Contrary to Alexander's public image of a liberal conqueror, Nicholas chose to present himself as the defender of order, a distinctively

Russian nationalist Russian nationalism () is a form of nationalism that promotes Russian cultural identity and unity. Russian nationalism first rose to prominence as a Pan-Slavic enterprise during the 19th century Russian Empire, and was repressed during the early ...

leader protecting the nation from foreign evils. Lack of public support encouraged Nicholas to stage grand ceremonial events; the whole reign was marked by sentimental "demonstrations of attachments and love" to the tsar "who had evoked only antipathy".Wortman, p. 130. He celebrated the day of his victory over the revolt with for the rest of his life, but the facts and analysis of 1825 events remained censored, contributing to the "Decembrist myth". Nicholas studied the grievances exposed in the 1826 investigation and incorporated them in his own reform program. Despite his good intentions, his administration evolved into an overcentralized, oversized and incompetent system. Instead of managing the country for Nicholas, the system "loaded him with an innumerable magnitude of trivial affairs". It was infested with laziness, indifference and corruption on all levels, although Seton-Watson wrote that the degree of bureaucratic vice has been exaggerated by contemporary critics. Constantine remained Viceroy of Poland until the

November uprising The November Uprising (1830–31) (), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in Russian Partition, the heartland of Partitions of Poland, partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. ...

and died in 1831 of cholera. He was "the only person treated by Nicholas as his equal and associate rather than a servant." Nicholas and Michael remained close until Michael's death of a

stroke Stroke is a medical condition in which poor cerebral circulation, blood flow to a part of the brain causes cell death. There are two main types of stroke: brain ischemia, ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and intracranial hemorrhage, hemor ...

in 1849, although Michael's militarism and tyranny over subordinates regularly annoyed Nicholas.

Historiography

In 1847 Nicholas commissioned historian Modest von Korff to write the first history of the interregnum and the Decembrist revolt. Korff received limited but then unprecedented access to private records of the Romanovs and personally interviewed surviving high-ranking witnesses. The first edition, approved by Nicholas, was published in 1848 in mere twenty-five copies. The third, and the first ''public'' edition, was published in 1857 simultaneously in Russian, English, French and German languages. Korff's account, despite constraints of

censorship Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governmen ...

, remains ''the'' mainstream version of the interregnum, but not the revolt. It was accepted in Imperial Russian (Schilder) and

Soviet historiography Soviet historiography is the methodology of history studies by historians in the Soviet Union (USSR). In the USSR, the study of history was marked by restrictions imposed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). Soviet historiography i ...

( Militsa Nechkina) and in Western academia (Anatole Mazour,

Vladimir Nabokov Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov ( ; 2 July 1977), also known by the pen name Vladimir Sirin (), was a Russian and American novelist, poet, translator, and entomologist. Born in Imperial Russia in 1899, Nabokov wrote his first nine novels in Rus ...

, Hugh Seton-Watson). Memoirs of the Decembrists contradicted official history and each other. Sergey Trubetskoy, referring to the first report of Alexander's terminal illness received in Saint Petersburg , wrote that "the thought of the successor frightened everybody because the successor ''was unknown''."Trubetskoy, p. 26. Andrey Rosen (1799–1884) wrote on the subject of Nicholas's oath to Constantine that "Count Miloradowitsch (sic) and Prince A. N. Galitzine, who knew the tenor of Alexander's will, exerted themselves in vain to prevent so doing, but Nicholas would not hear of any objection ... it was nevertheless ''everywhere known'' that Constantine has abdicated and that a will of Alexander's was in existence transferring the government to Nicholas... The members of the Senate knew that, since 1823, a will of Alexander's lay among their archives."Rosen, pp. 2-3. Rosen also speculated that because Nicholas "knew all along of the existence of secret societies" he voluntarily stepped aside "to avoid in this way any occasion of disturbance and discontent." Soviet historians concentrated on studies of the Decembrist movement and treated the interregnum as an insignificant episode in the grand picture of

class struggle In political science, the term class conflict, class struggle, or class war refers to the economic antagonism and political tension that exist among social classes because of clashing interests, competition for limited resources, and inequali ...

. Interregnum resurfaced as an independent research topic in the 1970s. Historians, biographers and fiction authors sought alternative explanations of irrational events and named Alexander, Nicholas, Miloradovich and Empress Maria, alone or in various combinations, as the secret driving forces of the interregnum. None of these alternatives received wide support in academia. * According to historian Mikhail Safonov, the interregnum was orchestrated by Empress Maria in alliance with Miloradovich. Maria allegedly sought power for herself and used Miloradovich to extract oath to Constantine from Nicholas. As soon as abdication of both Constantine and Nicholas became attested in public, the Crown of Russia would have passed to seven-year-old

Alexander Alexander () is a male name of Greek origin. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Variants listed here ar ...

. Maria thus received a solid opportunity to rule the Empire as the

regent In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...

for a whole decade. Nicholas realized the threat and launched his own

coup d'état A coup d'état (; ; ), or simply a coup , is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is said to take place when a leader, having come to powe ...

.Safonov 2001. * According to Kalinin's 1988 study of the Constantine ruble, Maria and Nicholas acted in accord. They feared that accession of Nicholas in accordance with Alexander's manifest will be opposed as a breach of Pauline laws and needed Constantine's formal abdication as a ''reigning monarch''. Nicholas (not Miloradovich) initiated oath to Constantine with a simple goal of adding more weight to Constantine's decision. * According to

Yakov Gordin Yakov (alternative spellings: Jakov or Iakov, cyrl, Яков) is a Russian or Hebrew variant of the given names Jacob and James. People also give the nickname Yasha ( cyrl, Яша) or Yashka ( cyrl, Яшка) used for Yakov. Notable people People ...

(a poet born in 1935 who switched into history writing in the 1970s) the interregnum was orchestrated by Miloradovich who acted as an independent dictator. He knew that Constantine, his wartime friend since the Swiss campaign of 1800, has no intention to rule. According to Gordin, Miloradovich hoped that the accession of Constantine would elevate him to the top of imperial hierarchy. With this in mind, he mobilized the generals' opposition against Nicholas and tolerated the Decembrist conspiracy. * German writer Vladimir Bryukhanov, in a radical development of Gordin's theory, wrote that Miloradovich was ''the'' puppetmaster of the Decembrists and led an influential military party including Arakcheev, Diebitsch,

Pavel Kiselyov Count Pavel Dmitrievich Kiselyov or Kiseleff (; , Moscow – , Paris) is generally regarded as the most brilliant Russian reformer during Nicholas I's generally conservative reign. Kiselyov was plenipotentiary president ( de facto governor) ...

and even doctor Wylie. According to Bryukhanov's

conspiracy theory A conspiracy theory is an explanation for an event or situation that asserts the existence of a conspiracy (generally by powerful sinister groups, often political in motivation), when other explanations are more probable.Additional sources: * ...

, Miloradovich planned to take over absolute power from the House of Romanov. * Tatyana Andreeva supported a toned-down version of Gordin's theory. According to Andreeva, Miloradovich assumed dictatorial authority but had no intention to become the "maker of the kings". Rather, he merely attempted to maintain the lawful

order of succession An order, line or right of succession is the line of individuals necessitated to hold a high office when it becomes vacated, such as head of state or an honour such as a title of nobility.Imperator Nikolai Pavlovich i graf M. A. Miloradovich (Император Николай Павлович и граф М. А. Милорадович)
'. СПБ: Философский век, выпуск 6 (The Philosophical Age. Almanac 6. Russia at the Time of Nicholas I: Science, Politics, Enlightenment. Ed. by T. Khartanovich, M. Mikeshin. St. Petersburg, 1998. 304 p.). * Bagby, Lewis (1990).
Alexander Bestuzhev-Marlinsky
'. Penn State Press. , . * Bartoshevich, V. V. (1991, in Russian).

', in: Melnikova, A. S. et al. (1991, in Russian).

'. Moscow: Finansy i statistika. . * Chapman, Tim (2001). '' ttps://books.google.com/books?id=W2UlvOPeUDEC Imperial Russia, 1801-1905'' Routledge. , . * Gordin, Yakov (1989, in Russian). ''Myatezh reformatorov (Мятеж реформаторов). 3rd edition: Lenizdat. . * Kagan, Frederick (1999).
The military reforms of Nicholas I: the origins of the modern Russian army
'. Pallgrave McMillan. , . * Korff, M. A. (1857).
The accession of Nicholas I
'. London: John Murray.
Russian 1857 edition
* Lee, Robert (1854).
The last days of Alexander, and the first days of Nicholas
'. London: Robert Bentley. * Mazour, Anatole (1937).
The first Russian revolution, 1825: the Decembrist movement, its origins, development, and significance
'. Stanford University Press. Reissue: , . * Melnikova, A. S. (1991, in Russian).

', in: Melnikova, A. S. et al. (1991, in Russian). '' ttp://www.arcamax.ru/books/const/const01.htm Konstantinovsky rubl. Novye materialy i opisaniya (Константиновский рубль. Новые материалы и исследования)'. Moscow: Finansy i statistika. . * Nabokov, Vladimir (1990 reprint).
Eugene Onegin: A Novel in Verse: Commentary
'. Princeton University Press. , . * Nechkina, Militsa (1984, in Russian).
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'. Moscow: Nauka. * Payne, Robert (1961).
Dostoyevsky: a human portrait
'. Knopf. * Pipes, Richard (1975).
Russia under the old regime
'. Scribner. , * Polukhina, Valentina (2008).
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'. Academic Studies Press. , . * Riasanovsky, Nicholas (1967).
Nicholas I and official nationality in Russia, 1825-1855
'. University of California Press. * Rosen, Andrey (1872).
Russian conspirators in Siberia
'. London, Smith, Elder & Co. * Safonov, M. M. (1994, in Russian).
K istorii mezhdutsarstviya (К истории междуцарстия)
'. Proceedings of the Mavrodinskie conference 10–12 December 1994, Saint Petersburg (Мавродинские чтения: материалы к докладам 10-12 октября 1994 г., Санкт-Петербург). Saint Petersburg University. * Safonov, M. M. (2001, in Russian).

', in: ''14 dekabrya 1825 goda. Istochniki. Issledovaniya. Istoriographia. Bibliographia. (14 декабря 1825 года. Источники. Исследования. Историография. Библиография.)'' vol. 4. (2001). Moscow: Nestor. . * Schilder, Nikolay (1898, in Russian).
Imperator Alexandr Pervy (Император Александр Первый)
'. Vol. 4. Saint Petersburg: A. S. Suvorin. * Schilder, Nikolay (1901, in Russian).
Pyatdesyat let russkoy istorii: devyatnatsaty vek (Пятьдесят лет русской истории; Девятнадцатый век)
'. Saint Petersburg: A. F. Marks. * Seton-Watson, Hugh (1988).
The Russian empire, 1801-1917
'. Oxford University Press. , . * Troyat, Henri (2002 English edition).
Alexander of Russia: Napoleon's Conqueror
'. Grove Press. , . Original published in French in 1981. * Trubetskoy, S. P. (1906, in Russian).
Zapiski knyazya S. P. Trubetskogo (Записки князя С. П. Трубецкого)
'. Saint Petersburg: Sirius. * Vasilich, G. (1908, in Russian).
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'. Saint Petersburg: Sever. * Wortman, Richard (2006).
Scenarios of power: myth and ceremony in Russian monarchy from Peter the Great to the abdication of Nicholas II
'. Princeton University Press. , . {{refend Politics of the Russian Empire Military history of Saint Petersburg Russian monarchy 19th century in the Russian Empire 1825 in the Russian Empire Interregnums Decembrist revolt 19th century in Saint Petersburg Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe Alexander I of Russia Nicholas I of Russia