Rumaliza
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Muhammad bin Khalfan bin Khamis al-Barwani () (born c. 1850, died 1919), commonly known as Rumaliza, was an Omani Swahili trader of slaves and ivory, active in Central and
East Africa East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the Africa, African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the regi ...
in the latter part of the nineteenth century. He was a member of the Arabian Barwani tribe. With the help of
Tippu Tip Tippu Tip, or Tippu Tib (– June 14, 1905), real name Ḥamad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jumʿah ibn Rajab ibn Muḥammad ibn Saʿīd al Murjabī (), was an Afro-Omani ivory and slave owner and trader, explorer, governor and plantation owner. He ...
, he became the Sultan of
Ujiji Ujiji is the oldest town in western Tanzania and is located in Kigoma-Ujiji District of Kigoma Region. Originally a Swahili settlement and then an Arab slave trading post by the mid-nineteenth century nominally under the Sultanate of Zanziba ...
. At one time, he dominated the trade of Tanganyika, before being defeated by Belgian forces under Baron Francis Dhanis in January 1894. Rumaliza was born in 1850 in Zanzibar. He helped the "
Nyamwezi Nyamwezi may refer to: * Nyamwezi people, of Tanzania * Nyamwezi language Nyamwezi is a major Bantu language of central Tanzania. It forms a dialect continuum A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of Variety (linguistics), langu ...
" African tribe and became friends with its members which then earned him nickname "Rumaliza." He played a significant role in the war against Belgian colonialism in the Congo and was pivotal in expanding trade within Africa. He is credited with opening several regions to commerce and raising the level of trade, particularly in ivory and other goods. His dominance extended to the coasts and the city of Ujiji, where he controlled the trade routes and established himself as a significant leader. Rumaliza built numerous alliances with African tribal leaders, strengthening his influence and authority through trade. He was renowned for his bravery and generosity, especially during times of famine, which earned him widespread respect. His reputation reached international recognition when the German Emperor gifted him a decorated rifle as a symbol of admiration for his achievements. Despite his successes, his influence waned following his defeat by Belgian forces, marking the decline of his dominance in the region. Muhammad bin Khalfan al-Barwani's legacy is remembered for his contributions to African trade and his role in resisting colonial forces.


Background

The trade in
slaves Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
from
East Africa East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the Africa, African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the regi ...
dates back thousands of years. Inhabitants of the
Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...
are documented as trading in slaves from the East African coast as early the second century AD. The Arabs established a series of trading posts along the coast which geographers referred to as the ''
zanj Zanj (, adj. , ''Zanjī''; from ) is a term used by medieval Muslim geographers to refer to both a certain portion of Southeast Africa (primarily the Swahili Coast) and to its Bantu inhabitants. It has also been used to refer to Africans col ...
''. Through prolonged contact with the Arabs, a distinctive '' Swahili'' ("coastal") culture developed among the Bantu peoples of the region and some converted to
Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
. Although the
Swahili language Swahili, also known as as it is referred to endonym and exonym, in the Swahili language, is a Bantu languages, Bantu language originally spoken by the Swahili people, who are found primarily in Tanzania, Kenya, and Mozambique (along the East Af ...
has Bantu roots, it includes many words of Arabic origin. For many years,
Zanzibar Zanzibar is a Tanzanian archipelago off the coast of East Africa. It is located in the Indian Ocean, and consists of many small Island, islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, referred to informally as Zanzibar) and Pemba Island. ...
was considered part of the
Omani Empire The Omani Empire () was a maritime empire, vying with Portugal and Britain for trade and influence in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. After rising as a regional power in the 18th century, the empire at its peak in the 19th century saw its i ...
. The Swahili and Arab traders obtained slaves in the interior of East Africa and sold them in the great markets like Zanzibar on the coast. The
Arab slave trade The Arab slave trade refers to various periods in which a slave trade has been carried out under the auspices of Arab peoples or Arab countries. The Arab slave trades are often associated or connected to the history of slavery in the Muslim world ...
peaked in the nineteenth century in response to growing local and international demand.


Biography


Early life and trading activities

Rumaliza was born at
Lindi Lindi is a historic coastal town in southern Tanzania and the administrative center of the Lindi Region, the least populated region in the country. Situated at the head of Lindi Bay along the Indian Ocean, the town is located approximately 10 ...
, on the Indian Ocean coast in the south of modern
Tanzania Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to t ...
, in around 1855. He was educated at Zanzibar during the reign of Majid bin Sa'id (r. 1856–70). He became a leader in the Islamic ''
Qadiriyya The Qadiriyya () or the Qadiri order () is a Sunni Sufi order (''Tariqa'') founded by Abdul Qadir Gilani (1077–1166, also transliterated ''Jilani''), who was a Hanbali scholar from Gilan, Iran. The order, with its many sub-orders, is widesp ...
'' brotherhood. The Arab trader
Tippu Tip Tippu Tip, or Tippu Tib (– June 14, 1905), real name Ḥamad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jumʿah ibn Rajab ibn Muḥammad ibn Saʿīd al Murjabī (), was an Afro-Omani ivory and slave owner and trader, explorer, governor and plantation owner. He ...
from Zanzibar increasingly pushed inland towards the modern-day
Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbouring Republic of the Congo), is a country in Central Africa. By land area, it is t ...
and reached the Luba region in the late 1850s trading in slaves, ivory, and copper. Relying on force as needed to defeat uncooperative local chiefs, he steadily expanded his trading empire. In 1875, he established his capital as
Kasongo Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and territory in the Maniema Province in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Geography Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of where it meets the Luama River, at an a ...
. Rumaliza spent some time with Tippu Tip at
Tabora Tabora is the capital of Tanzania's Tabora Region and is classified as a municipality by the Tanzanian government. It is also the administrative seat of Tabora Urban District. According to the 2012 census, the district had a population of 226, ...
in western Tanzania, and is said to have acquired his name from the nearby village or suburb called Rumaliza or Lumaliza. Rumaliza formed a trading alliance with Tippu Tip. A market where salt could be exchanged for other goods was established at
Ujiji Ujiji is the oldest town in western Tanzania and is located in Kigoma-Ujiji District of Kigoma Region. Originally a Swahili settlement and then an Arab slave trading post by the mid-nineteenth century nominally under the Sultanate of Zanziba ...
on
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
in 1840. Tippu Tip and Ruwaliza established themselves there in 1881. From 1883 Rumaliza was the leader of the Swahili community at Ujiji. Rumaliza and his Magwangwara auxiliaries occupied five posts on the northeast coast of Lake Tanganyika between 1884 and 1894. He launched a series of raids into the mountains and up the
Rusizi River The Ruzizi (also sometimes spelled Rusizi, French: ''Rivière Ruzizi''; Dutch: ''Ruzizi Rivier'') is a river, long, that flows from Lake Kivu to Lake Tanganyika in Central Africa, descending from about to about above sea level over its lengt ...
valley as far as
Lake Kivu Lake Kivu is one of the African Great Lakes. It lies on the border between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda, and is in the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift. Lake Kivu empties into the Ruzizi River, which ...
. The HM Company, a trading organization led by
Tippu Tip Tippu Tip, or Tippu Tib (– June 14, 1905), real name Ḥamad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jumʿah ibn Rajab ibn Muḥammad ibn Saʿīd al Murjabī (), was an Afro-Omani ivory and slave owner and trader, explorer, governor and plantation owner. He ...
, appeared in 1883. It was backed by Sultan
Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar Sayyid Barghash bin Said al-Busaidi (1836 – 26 March 1888) (), an Afro-Omani Sultan and the son of Said bin Sultan, was the second Sultan of Zanzibar. He ruled Sultanate of Zanzibar, Zanzibar from 7 October 1870 to 26 March 1888. Life and rei ...
and Taria Topan. The
International African Association The International African Association (in full, "International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa"; in French ''Association Internationale Africaine,'' and in full ''Association Internationale pour l'Exploration et ...
(IAA) offered their support if Tippu Tip would help them achieve control of the territories in which he had established strong points although it was notionally committed to eliminating the Arab slave trade. Tippu used trade goods advanced to the company to form an alliance with Rumaliza, who had many men but was short of money and could not obtain loans. The new company operated between Ujiji and Stanley Falls and in areas to the south of this line, controlled by Abdullah ibn Suleiman as lieutenant of Tippu Tip and Rumaliza. Between 1885 and 1892, after the death of Mwenge Heri, Rumaliza consolidated his power over the Masanze, Ubvari, Umona and Ubembi people. He wanted to open new trade routes towards
Maniema Maniema Province (''Jimbo la Maniema'', in Swahili) is one of 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital is Kindu. The 2020 population was estimated to be 2,856,300. Toponymy Henry Morton Stanley explored the area ...
to the west and
Ituri Ituri Province ( in Swahili language, Swahili) is one of the 21 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo created in the Subdivisions of the DR Congo#New provinces, 2015 repartitioning. Ituri, Bas-Uele, Haut-Uele, and Tshopo provinces ...
to the north. In 1886 Tippu Tip recognized the
Congo Free State The Congo Free State, also known as the Independent State of the Congo (), was a large Sovereign state, state and absolute monarchy in Central Africa from 1885 to 1908. It was privately owned by Leopold II of Belgium, King Leopold II, the const ...
, which superseded the IAA, and was made Governor of the eastern areas that were covered by his trading network. In 1890 Rumaliza provided large amounts of ivory to the African Lakes Company for transport. Taria Topan died in late 1891. Tippu Tip obtained part of the estate as payment for outstanding debts. Rumaliza sued for a share in the
Dar es Salaam Dar es Salaam (, ; from ) is the largest city and financial hub of Tanzania. It is also the capital of the Dar es Salaam Region. With a population of over 7 million people, Dar es Salaam is the largest city in East Africa by population and the ...
court as a newly-loyal subject of
German East Africa German East Africa (GEA; ) was a German colonial empire, German colony in the African Great Lakes region, which included present-day Burundi, Rwanda, the Tanzania mainland, and the Kionga Triangle, a small region later incorporated into Portugu ...
which had consolidated control in modern-day Tanzania. He was awarded some of Tippu's property held in the German colony. Stories told in the Uele, Aruwimi,
Tshuapa Tshuapa is one of the 21 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo created in the Subdivisions of the DR Congo#New provinces, 2015 repartitioning. Tshuapa, Équateur Province, Équateur, Mongala, Nord-Ubangi, and Sud-Ubangi provinces are ...
, Maniema and
Kisangani Kisangani (), formerly Stanleyville (), is the capital of Tshopo, Tshopo Province, located on the Congo River in the eastern part of the central Congo Basin in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is the country's fifth-most populous urban a ...
areas, regions distant and far away from one another, associated Rumaliza and his parties with the kidnapping of women, cutting off men's genitals (to be captured and sold as
eunuch A eunuch ( , ) is a male who has been castration, castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2 ...
slaves), cutting off legs, arms and hands, piercing of noses and ears, burning villages and killings.Osumaka Likaka (2009). Naming Colonialism: History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870–1960. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 104.


Conflict with Christian missionaries

The Catholic
White Fathers The White Fathers (), officially known as the Missionaries of Africa (), and abbreviated MAfr, are a Roman Catholic society of apostolic life of pontifical right (for men). They were founded in 1868 by Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie, who w ...
missionaries had established posts in the northwest of Tanganyika that formed an obstacle to Arab incursions into the Maniema region, protected by Captain Léopold Louis Joubert, a former
Papal Zouave The Papal Zouaves () were an infantry battalion (later regiment) dedicated to defending the Papal States. Named after the French zouave regiments, the ' were mainly young men, unmarried and Catholic, who volunteered to assist Pope Pius IX in his s ...
. Rumaliza tolerated the foundation of the missions at
Mulwewa Mulwewa was a mission founded by White Fathers missionaries on the west side of Lake Tanganyika, in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is at Massanze, near Uvira. The White Fathers reached Lake Tanganyika in January 1879, and es ...
in 1880 and
Kibanga Kibanga, formerly called Lavigerieville, is a settlement in the South Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The White Fathers founded the first mission station on the west of the lake at Mulweba in 1880, and founded the mission a ...
in 1883, but would not allow establishment of a station at Ujiji. In 1886, he tried to conquer Burundi but was defeated by the king Mwezi Gisabo in Uzige situated in the actual city Bujumbura. In May 1890 a group of Arabs came close to attacking the White Fathers mission at
Mpala Mpala is the location of an early Catholic mission in the Belgian Congo. A military station was established at Mpala on the shores of Lake Tanganyika in May 1883. It was transferred to the White Fathers missionaries in 1885. At one time it was hop ...
on the west shore of Lake Tanganyika, and only withdrew after a storm destroyed a number of their supply boats. Before leaving they confirmed that Rumaliza had given orders to them not to harm the missionaries. In September 1890 the White Fathers
Léonce Bridoux Léonce Bridoux, M. Afr. (15 January 1852 – 20 October 1890) was a Catholic missionary of the White Fathers who became the Vicar Apostolic of Tanganyika. Early years Léonce Bridoux was born on 15 January 1852 in Henin-Liétard, France. His f ...
and Francois Coulbois visited Ujiji, where they found Rumaliza and Tippu Tip. The two slavers were friendly, and Rumaliza was anxious that the missionaries gave a good report of him to
Emin Pasha Mehmed Emin Pasha (born Isaak Eduard Schnitzer, baptized Eduard Carl Oscar Theodor Schnitzer; March 28, 1840 – October 23, 1892) was an Ottoman physician of German Jewish origin, naturalist, and governor of the Egyptian province of Equatoria ...
, who was expected at Ujiji. Rumaliza apologized for the hostility his men had shown to the missionaries, saying he was unable to control them. However, Rumaliza was determined to eliminate Léopold Louis Joubert, commander of the forces defending the White Fathers, who was disrupting the slave trade. By 1891 the slavers had control of the entire western shore of the lake apart from Mpala and the Mrumbi plain. Joubert's position was ambiguous. The Belgians had appointed Tippu Tip as their lieutenant in the region, but Joubert refused to recognize the authority of the slaver. During a lull in January 1891, Father I. Moinet visited Ujiji where he found Rumaliza flying a German flag and saying he was waiting for the Germans to arrive so he could hand over to them. In a letter to Joubert in April 1891, Rumaliza asked if he was employed by the missionaries or by the government of the Congo. Joubert was evasive in his reply, pointing out that Rumaliza sometimes flew the German flag, sometimes the flag of Zanzibar and sometimes that of Britain.


War and defeat

The Congo Free State became stronger and less tolerant of Arab strongmen, determined to stamp them out. By 1892 Rumaliza dominated Tanganyika from his base at Ujiji on the old slave route that led from Stanley Falls up the
Lualaba River The Lualaba River (, , ) flows entirely within the eastern part of Democratic Republic of the Congo. It provides the greatest streamflow to the Congo River, while the River source, source of the Congo is recognized as the Chambeshi River, Chambeshi ...
to
Nyangwe Nyangwe is a town on the right bank of the Lualaba River, in the Maniema Province in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (territory of Kasongo). In the second half of the 19th century, it was an important Swahili–Arab hub for tra ...
, east to Lake Tanganyika and then via Tabora to
Bagamoyo Bagamoyo (''Mji wa Bagamoyo'', in Swahili) is a historic coastal town and capital of Bagamoyo District in the Pwani Region of Tanzania. Much of the settlement was founded at the end of the 18th century, though it is an extension of a much old ...
opposite Zanzibar. The total number of Swahili fighters in this huge region numbered around one hundred thousand, but each chief acted independently. Although experienced in warfare, they were poorly armed with simple rifles. The Belgians had just six hundred troops divided between the camps at
Basoko Basoko is a town on the Congo River in the Tshopo Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. As of 2009 it had an estimated population of 47,970. Climate Notable people *George Grenfell George Grenfell (21 August 1849, in Sancre ...
and
Lusambo Lusambo () is the capital Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, city of Sankuru province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The town lies north of the confluence of the Sankuru River and the Lubi River. Lusambo is served by Lusambo Airp ...
, but were much better armed and had six cannons and a machine gun. A Belgian expedition under Captain Jacques came to the relief of Joubert in 1892, and then established a position at
Albertville Albertville (; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Arbèrtvile'') is a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture of the Savoie Departments of France, department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes Regions of France, region in Southeastern France. It is best k ...
where Rumaliza's troops were defeated by a relief column while besieging the post. The Belgian forces under Francis Dhanis launched a campaign against the slave dealers in 1892, and Rumaliza was one of the main targets. Dhanis advanced up the river. He reached Nyangwe on 4 March 1893 and
Kasongo Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and territory in the Maniema Province in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Geography Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of where it meets the Luama River, at an a ...
on 22 April 1893, finding both towns abandoned. He found a huge supply store at Kasongo including ivory, ammunition, food and luxuries such as gold and crystal tableware. For the next six months Dhanis remained inactive, while Rumaliza's forces were swelled by Swahili fighters who had escaped after defeat by Dhanis. In 1893 Tippu Tip advised Rumaliza to retire from the trade, but Rumaliza first had to look after his people at Lake Tanganyika. Rumaliza raised a strong force, which clashed with Dhanis' column on 15 October 1893 causing the death of two European leaders and fifty of their soldiers. On 19 October 1893 Rumaliza attacked a position one day's march from Kasongo. Dhanis concentrated his forces and defeated Rumaliza. A column under Captain
Hubert Lothaire Hubert Joseph Lothaire ( Rochefort, 10 November 1865 – Ixelles, 8 May 1929) was a Belgian officer who served in the Force Publique of the Congo Free State. He started his military career as a lieutenant in the Belgian infantry, later he entere ...
pursued him to the north of Lake Tanganyika, destroying his fortified positions along the route. At the lake they joined with the anti-slavery expedition led by Captain
Alphonse Jacques Lieutenant-general Baron Jules Marie Alphonse Jacques de Dixmude (24 February 1858 – 24 November 1928), often known as General Jacques, was a Belgian military figure of World War I and colonial advocate. Congo Free State He founded Albertvi ...
. By 24 December 1893 Dhanis had obtained reinforcements and was ready to advance again. Rumaliza had also received assistance. Dhanis sent one column under Gillain to prevent Rumaliza from retreating, and another under De Wouters to advance on Rumaliza's fort near Bena Kalunga. A group of fresh forces coming to Rumaliza's aid from Tanganyika was headed off, and Dhanis's forces closed in on Rumaliza's two fortified '' bomas''. On 9 January 1894 Belgian reinforcements arrived under Lothaire, and the same day a shell blew up Rumaliza's ammunition store and burned down the fort containing it. Most of the occupants were killed while attempting to escape. Within three days the other forts, cut off from water supplies, surrendered. More than two thousand prisoners were taken, although Rumaliza himself managed to escape. Rumaliza took refuge in the German territory of Tanganyika.


References

Notes Citations Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{refend African slave traders Congo Free State People from Lindi 19th-century African businesspeople Perpetrators of atrocities in the Congo Free State African warlords 1850s births 19th-century Arab people 19th-century Omani people 19th-century explorers Arab slave traders 19th-century slave traders Year of death missing Explorers of Africa