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Rum Jungle or Unrungkoolpum is a locality in the
Northern Territory of Australia The Northern Territory (abbreviated as NT; known formally as the Northern Territory of Australia and informally as the Territory) is an states and territories of Australia, Australian internal territory in the central and central-northern regi ...
, about 105 kilometres south of Darwin on the East Branch of the Finniss River. It is 10 kilometres west of Batchelor and shares a boundary with
Litchfield National Park Litchfield National Park, covering approximately 1500 km2, is near the township of Batchelor, Northern Territory, Batchelor, 100 km south-west of Darwin, Northern Territory, Darwin, in the Northern Territory of Australia. Each year the ...
. The joint
traditional owners Native title is the set of rights, recognised by Australian law, held by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander groups or individuals to land that derive from their maintenance of their traditional laws and customs. These Aboriginal title rig ...
of this area are the
Kungarakan The Kungarakany people, also spelt Koongurrukuñ, Kungarrakany, Kungarakan and other variants, are an Aboriginal Australian people of the Northern Territory. They were called the "Paperbark People" by European settlers. Country Norman Tindale e ...
and Warai peoples, and their rights to the land are recognised in the Finnis River Land Claim, which was granted in May 1981. The European name for this area derives from an incident in March 1873 when miners from the nearby John Bull goldmine met a
teamster A teamster in American English is a truck driver; a person who drives teams of draft animals; or a member of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, a labor union. In some places, a teamster was called a carter, the name referring to the ...
who was carting stores between
Southport Southport is a seaside resort, seaside town in the Metropolitan Borough of Sefton in Merseyside, England. It lies on the West Lancashire Coastal Plain, West Lancashire coastal plain and the east coast of the Irish Sea, approximately north of ...
and Pine Creek. The teamster tapped a cask of rum that he was carrying and shared it with locals. After waking up from the effects of the teamster's hospitality, they found that he had stolen of their gold, along with their horses, and disappeared. Searches for the thief lasted for a number of months until he and the gold were found. The name was first used when reporting the death of Patrick Flynn in November 1873. Rum Jungle is best known as the site of a uranium deposit, found in 1949, which was mined between 1954 and 1971, producing 3,530 tonnes of uranium oxide, as well as 20,000 tonnes of copper concentrate.


History

The first European person to travel to the Rum Jungle area was
George Goyder George Woodroffe Goyder (24 June 1826 – 2 November 1898) was a surveyor in the Colony of South Australia during the latter half of the nineteenth century. He rose rapidly in the civil service, becoming Assistant Surveyor-General by 1856 ...
in 1869. During his exploration, he noted an unidentified copper-like green ore at "Giants Reef", which was later "rediscovered" and identified to be
torbernite Torbernite, also known as chalcolite, is a relatively common mineral with the chemical formula Cu UO2)(PO4)sub>2(H2O)12. It is a radioactive, hydrated green copper uranyl phosphate, found in granites and other uranium-bearing deposits as a s ...
. That discovery received minimal attention at the time and other European and Chinese people began occupying the area, especially after the discovery of gold in the 1870s. Prospectors also occasionally mined copper and other minerals on a small scale. Those new arrivals exposed the local Aboriginal people, the Kungarakan and Warai, to a variety of illnesses and diseases, including
smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by Variola virus (often called Smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus '' Orthopoxvirus''. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (W ...
,
leprosy Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease (HD), is a Chronic condition, long-term infection by the bacteria ''Mycobacterium leprae'' or ''Mycobacterium lepromatosis''. Infection can lead to damage of the Peripheral nervous system, nerves, respir ...
and
tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB), also known colloquially as the "white death", or historically as consumption, is a contagious disease usually caused by ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can al ...
. Aboriginal people were also subjected to trauma including the sexual exploitation of women, forced migration and massacres. One such was the Stapleton Siding massacre in July 1895 in which 80 Aboriginal people were killed following the distribution of poisoned
damper A damper is a device that deadens, restrains, or depresses. It may refer to: Music * Damper pedal, a device that mutes musical tones, particularly in stringed instruments * A mute for various brass instruments Structure * Damper (flow), a mech ...
. Joe McGinness was told the story by his mother
Alngindabu Alngindabu, also spelt Alyandabu and also known as Lucy McGinness, (c.1874 – 23 September 1961), was a female senior elder (Almiyuk) from Chapana, near the Finniss River in the Northern Territory of Australia. The Lucy Mine was named after ...
, who survived the massacre, and said of it: That was one of at least three poisoning incidents suffered by the Kungarakan people. One notable early European resident was Nellie Flynn, who was only about 145cm tall and who arrived in the area in 1909. There she met her future husband, Tom Flynn, who was 189cm tall, and was believed to have walked the 2,000km from
Cooktown, Queensland Cooktown is a coastal town and suburbs and localities (Australia), locality in the Shire of Cook, Queensland, Australia. Cooktown is at the mouth of the Endeavour River, on Cape York Peninsula in Far North Queensland where James Cook beached h ...
. Nellie Flynn lived in the area until the 1970s and became a well-known character.


Mining


Uranium mining

In April 1948, a notice was published in the ''
Commonwealth of Australia Gazette The ''Commonwealth of Australia Gazette'' is a publication of the Government of Australia, and consists of notices required by Commonwealth law to be published. Types of announcements in the Gazette include, appointments, promotions and transfer ...
'' that the Government was offering a rewards of £25,000 for the discovery of
uranium ore Uranium ore deposits are economically recoverable concentrations of uranium within Earth's crust. Uranium is one of the most common Chemical element, elements in Earth's crust, being 40 times more common than silver and 500 times more common than ...
in Australia. The reward was offered due to an increased demand for uranium following
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, and the United States and Britain had identified Australia as a potential source. In 1949, John Michael "Jack" White discovered
torbernite Torbernite, also known as chalcolite, is a relatively common mineral with the chemical formula Cu UO2)(PO4)sub>2(H2O)12. It is a radioactive, hydrated green copper uranyl phosphate, found in granites and other uranium-bearing deposits as a s ...
in the shafts of old copper mines. White was a buffalo shooter, crocodile hunter and prospector, who ran a small farm in the area with his Aboriginal partner, whose name has not been disclosed. He recognised the uranium ore from a color pamphlet that had been produced as part of the announcement of the reward. He delivered his samples to the Mines Branch in Darwin on 13 August 1949, and was later able to collect the full reward. News of the discovery was published throughout Australia. In 1952, the Australian Government funded the setting up of a mine and treatment plant to provide uranium oxide concentrate to the UK-US Combined Development Agency under a contract which ran from 1953 to 1962. The mine was officially opened on 17 September 1954 by the Prime Minister
Robert Menzies The name Robert is an ancient Germanic given name, from Proto-Germanic "fame" and "bright" (''Hrōþiberhtaz''). Compare Old Dutch ''Robrecht'' and Old High German ''Hrodebert'' (a compound of '' Hruod'' () "fame, glory, honour, praise, reno ...
, who promised that " e world will forget about atomic bombs and concentrate on using uranium for the benefit of humankind" while also talking about its importance in terms of the defence of Australia. On 13 September, days before the mine officially opened, four staff of the mine were killed when two trucks collided. The mine was the responsibility of Commonwealth Government, through the
Australian Atomic Energy Commission The Australian Atomic Energy Commission (AAEC) was a statutory body of the Australian Government devoted to nuclear science, engineering and research. It was established in 1952, replacing the Atomic Energy Policy Committee. In 1981, parts of th ...
, although management of it was by Territory Enterprises Pty Limited, a subsidiary of the
Rio Tinto Group Rio Tinto Group is a British-Australian multinational company that is the world's second largest metals and mining corporation (behind BHP). It was founded in 1873 when a group of investors purchased a mine complex on the Río Tinto, in Hu ...
, on a contract basis. Batchelor, a nearby town, accommodated most of the mining personnel and grew significantly at that time. By 1959, the economically viable ore had been extracted but operations continued on a small scale until 1963. Other work continued there until April 1971, with stockpiled ore from Rum Jungle and other sites around Australia, including from Eva Creek and
Adelaide River The Adelaide River is a river in the Northern Territory of Australia. Course and features The river rises in the Litchfield National Park and flows generally northwards to Clarence Strait, joined by eight tributaries including the west branc ...
, continued to be processed. A total of 863,000 tonnes of uranium ore were processed and much was sold on the open market; some of this was also stockpiled and held in storage at Lucas Heights Reactor in Sydney.


Pollution and clean-up

The Rum Jungle mine closed in April 1971 and the site was abandoned. The Federal Government (which controlled the mine through its agency the Australian Atomic Energy Commission, now known as
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation The Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) is a statutory body of the Australian Government that is responsible for nuclear research and the production of radioisotopes for nuclear medicine. It was established in Apr ...
decided not to rehabilitate the mine site . The mining company Conzinc, now part of the Rio Tinto Group, which owns
Energy Resources of Australia Energy Resources of Australia Ltd () is a public company based in Australia. It is a subsidiary of the Rio Tinto Group which as of 2021 owns 86.3% of the company. The remainder is publicly held and traded on the Australian Securities Exchange. The ...
, operators of the
Ranger Uranium Mine The Ranger Uranium Mine was a uranium mine in the Northern Territory of Australia. The site is surrounded by, but separate from Kakadu National Park, 230 km east of Darwin. The orebody was discovered in late 1969, and the mine commenced o ...
in
Kakadu National Park Kakadu National Park is a protected area in the Northern Territory of Australia, southeast of Darwin. It is a World Heritage Site. Kakadu is also gazetted as a locality, covering the same area as the national park, with 313 people recorded l ...
, consistently denied any responsibility for rehabilitation. That led to the mine becoming known as one of Australia's most polluted environments, due to the
oxidation Redox ( , , reduction–oxidation or oxidation–reduction) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of the reactants change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is ...
of sulphides and the release of
acid An acid is a molecule or ion capable of either donating a proton (i.e. Hydron, hydrogen cation, H+), known as a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, Brønsted–Lowry acid, or forming a covalent bond with an electron pair, known as a Lewis ...
and metals into the east branch of the Finniss River. The 1500 mm annual rainfall, along with the pyritic mineralisation in the area, created ideal conditions for such oxidation. An initial attempt to clean up Rum Jungle was made in 1977, following the
Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry (RUEI) (also known as the Fox Report) was a committee established by the Whitlam government in Australia, which sought to explore the environmental concerns surrounding uranium mining. The Inquiry was establ ...
(1976 - 1977), which led to the setting-up of a working group to examine more comprehensive rehabilitation. A $16.2 million Commonwealth-funded program got under way in 1983 to remove heavy metals and neutralise the
tailings In mining, tailings or tails are the materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction (gangue) of an ore. Tailings are different from overburden, which is the waste rock or other material ...
. Of the damage to the Rum Jungle area the Commissioner of the Inquiry, Justice
Russell Fox Russell Walter Fox AC QC LLB (30 September 1920 – 22 December 2013) was an Australian author, educator, jurist and former chief judge of the Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory. He is best known for his extensive report on uran ...
stated: Elevated
gamma radiation A gamma ray, also known as gamma radiation (symbol ), is a penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation arising from high energy interactions like the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei or astronomical events like solar flares. It consists o ...
, alpha-radioactive dust, and significant
radon Radon is a chemical element; it has symbol Rn and atomic number 86. It is a radioactive noble gas and is colorless and odorless. Of the three naturally occurring radon isotopes, only Rn has a sufficiently long half-life (3.825 days) for it to b ...
daughter concentrations were detected. The levels were so high that, in the late 1980s, it was decided that something had to be done. Radiation protection standards had been revised, so that the levels of pollution were officially recognised as unsafe for human health. As a result, a supplementary $1.8 million program to improve Rum Jungle Creek South waste dumps was undertaken in 1990. In 2003, a government survey of the tailings piles at Rum Jungle found that capping, which was supposed to help contain the radioactive waste for at least 100 years, had failed in less than 20 years. The Northern Territory and Federal Governments continued to argue over responsibility for funding rehabilitation on the polluted East Finniss River. contamination of local groundwater has yet to be addressed.


= Rum Jungle Lake

= One of the principal problems associated with rehabilitating the Rum Jungle Creek South open cut mine was that, after mining ceased, the mine pit was converted to a lake known as Rum Jungle Lake. It is considered to be the only water body in the Darwin region not infested with
crocodile Crocodiles (family (biology), family Crocodylidae) or true crocodiles are large, semiaquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. The term "crocodile" is sometimes used more loosely to include ...
s and, after the mine's closure, it quickly became very popular with locals and Darwin residents as a recreation reserve, for activities including
swimming Swimming is the self-propulsion of a person through water, such as saltwater or freshwater environments, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival. Swimmers achieve locomotion by coordinating limb and body movements to achieve hydrody ...
,
canoeing Canoeing is an activity which involves paddling a canoe with a single-bladed paddle. In some parts of Europe, canoeing refers to both canoeing and kayaking, with a canoe being called an 'open canoe' or Canadian. A few of the recreational ...
and
scuba diving Scuba diving is a Diving mode, mode of underwater diving whereby divers use Scuba set, breathing equipment that is completely independent of a surface breathing gas supply, and therefore has a limited but variable endurance. The word ''scub ...
. In November 2010, the lake was closed to the public after a series of recordings showed low levels of radiation. After testing by the Environmental Research Institute, it was decided that the site was safe and it was reopened in October 2012. In June 2024, the Coomalie Community Government Council released a community survey regarding planned further rehabilitation works on the lake.


Brown's Oxide Project

In December 2001, Compass Resources lodged a Referral under the EPBC Act with
Environment Australia Environment most often refers to: __NOTOC__ * Natural environment, referring respectively to all living and non-living things occurring naturally and the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism ...
. That document referred to the proposed development of a large-scale mining project, the Browns Polymetallic Project, that would produce
lead Lead () is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol Pb (from Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a Heavy metal (elements), heavy metal that is density, denser than most common materials. Lead is Mohs scale, soft and Ductility, malleabl ...
,
cobalt Cobalt is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Co and atomic number 27. As with nickel, cobalt is found in the Earth's crust only in a chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. ...
,
copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...
,
nickel Nickel is a chemical element; it has symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel is a hard and ductile transition metal. Pure nickel is chemically reactive, but large pieces are slo ...
and
silver Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...
, over a project life of at least 15 years. As indicated in the 2001 Referral, Compass considered that the Browns Polymetallic Project was a "nuclear action" under the EPBC Act, on the basis that the project could be considered to include rehabilitating a facility or area in which mining or milling of uranium ore had previously been undertaken. Compass suspended its work on the polymetallic proposal in 2002, after low metal prices caused the withdrawal of Compass's financial partner, Doe Run. In 2005, Compass lodged an application for a much smaller project, focusing on cobalt, nickel and copper mining. Because that project, the Brown's Oxide Project, was much smaller than the polymetallic project proposed previously, Compass was in a position to develop it on its own. The
Northern Territory Government The Northern Territory Government is the executive branch of the Northern Territory. The Government of Northern Territory was formed in 1978 with the granting of self-government to the Territory. The Northern Territory is a territory of the Co ...
assessed the project and
Marion Scrymgour Marion Rose Scrymgour (born 13 September 1960) is an Australian politician and the current member of parliament (MP) for the Division of Lingiari, federal seat of Lingiari since 2022. She was a member of the Northern Territory Legislative Assem ...
, the Minister for Natural Resources, Environment and Heritage in the Northern Territory Government, concluded that the Browns Oxide Project, as proposed in the Public Environmental Report and subsequent documents, "can be managed without unacceptable environmental impacts". During question time in the Northern Territory Parliament on 4 May 2006,
Kon Vatskalis Konstantine Vatskalis (born 4 April 1957) is a Greek-Australian politician and the current Lord Mayor of Darwin. Before becoming Lord Mayor in 2017 he was a Labor Party member of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly from September 2001 ...
, the Minister for Mines and Energy, announced the approval as "good news". To ensure the environment was managed properly, the approval was subject to final review by the
Commonwealth Government The Australian Government, also known as the Commonwealth Government or simply as the federal government, is the national executive government of Australia, a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The executive consists of the prime ...
, under a bilateral agreement between the two governments. Pending final Commonwealth approval, the project is set to be in production by early 2007. While the project was located near the old Rum Jungle mine, the Browns Oxide Project targeted copper cobalt and nickel, not uranium. Nonetheless, Compass acknowledged that, at some future point, it would be interested in mining uranium at the nearby Rum Jungle site, over which it held a lease. Any proposal to mine uranium would require a totally new application and environmental assessment as a separate project.


Geology of the region

The major uranium prospects of Brown's, Intermediate, White's, White's extension and Dyson's, occur northwest of, but parallel to, the north-east trending Giant's Reef Fault. Ore deposits occur in
Precambrian The Precambrian ( ; or pre-Cambrian, sometimes abbreviated pC, or Cryptozoic) is the earliest part of Earth's history, set before the current Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian is so named because it preceded the Cambrian, the first period of t ...
carbonaceous Carbonaceous refers to something relating to, containing, or composed of carbon. It is a descriptor used for the attribute of any substance rich in carbon. Particularly, ''carbonaceous hydrocarbons'' are very unsaturated, high- molecular-weight h ...
slate Slate is a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous, metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade, regional metamorphism. It is the finest-grained foliated metamorphic ro ...
and
graphitic Graphite () is a crystalline allotrope (form) of the element carbon. It consists of many stacked layers of graphene, typically in excess of hundreds of layers. Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of carbon under standard cond ...
schist Schist ( ) is a medium-grained metamorphic rock generally derived from fine-grained sedimentary rock, like shale. It shows pronounced ''schistosity'' (named for the rock). This means that the rock is composed of mineral grains easily seen with a l ...
of the Lower
Proterozoic The Proterozoic ( ) is the third of the four geologic eons of Earth's history, spanning the time interval from 2500 to 538.8 Mya, and is the longest eon of Earth's geologic time scale. It is preceded by the Archean and followed by the Phanerozo ...
Brooks Creek Group. Structurally, the deposits are within a sheared
anticline In structural geology, an anticline is a type of Fold (geology), fold that is an arch-like shape and has its oldest Bed (geology), beds at its core, whereas a syncline is the inverse of an anticline. A typical anticline is convex curve, c ...
on the southern flank of a
granite Granite ( ) is a coarse-grained (phanerite, phaneritic) intrusive rock, intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase. It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly coo ...
dome A dome () is an architectural element similar to the hollow upper half of a sphere. There is significant overlap with the term cupola, which may also refer to a dome or a structure on top of a dome. The precise definition of a dome has been a m ...
. Primary minerals include
chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite ( ) is a copper iron sulfide mineral and the most abundant copper ore mineral. It has the chemical formula CuFeS2 and crystallizes in the tetragonal system. It has a brassy to golden yellow color and a Mohs scale, hardness of 3.5 to 4 ...
,
bornite Bornite, also known as peacock ore, is a sulfide mineral with chemical composition that crystallizes in the orthorhombic system (pseudo-cubic). It is an important copper ore. Appearance Bornite has a brown to copper-red color on fresh surfa ...
,
bournonite Bournonite, also ''axotomous antimony glance'',''Robert Jameson''. Manual of Mineralogy: containing an account of simple minerals, and also a description and arrangement of mountain rocks. — Edinburgh, Archibald Constable & Co., 1821. — 49 ...
,
pyrite The mineral pyrite ( ), or iron pyrite, also known as fool's gold, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula Fe S2 (iron (II) disulfide). Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide mineral. Pyrite's metallic luster and pale brass-yellow hue ...
, and
uraninite Uraninite, also known as pitchblende, is a radioactive, uranium-rich mineral and ore with a chemical composition that is largely UO2 but because of oxidation typically contains variable proportions of U3O8. Radioactive decay of the uranium c ...
. Oxidized ores include
azurite Azurite or '' Azure spar'Krivovichev V. G.'' Mineralogical glossary. Scientific editor A. G. Bulakh. — St.Petersburg: St.Petersburg Univ. Publ. House. 2009. — 556 p. — ISBN 978-5-288-04863-0. ''(in Russian)'' is a soft, deep-blue copp ...
,
malachite Malachite () is a copper Carbonate mineral, carbonate hydroxide mineral, with the chemical formula, formula Basic copper carbonate, Cu2CO3(OH)2. This opaque, green-banded mineral crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system, and most often for ...
, pseudomalachite, iron oxides, torbernite,
saleeite Saleeite is a secondary uranium mineral occurring in the oxidized zones of uranium deposits, or as disseminations in carnotite-bearing sandstones. Its chemical formula is Mg(UO2)2(PO4)2·10(H2O). It was discovered in 1932 at Shinkolobwe, Katanga ...
, and
phosphuranylite Phosphuranylite is a uranyl phosphate mineral with formula KCa(H3O)3(UO2)7(PO4)4O4·8(H2O). It was first described in 1879 by Frederick Augustus Genth, from an occurrence in the Flat Rock pegmatite in Mitchell County, North Carolina Mitchell ...
.


See also

* Cave Divers Association of Australia *'' There Are No Bugles''


References


External links


Rum Jungle Deposit Summary Report

Rum Jungle – Whites, Dysons, Intermediate, Browns, Mount Burton, Mount Fitch
* * * * * * – company web site

at
Mindat.org Mindat.org is a non-commercial interactive online database covering minerals around the world. Originally created by Jolyon Ralph as a private project in 1993, it was launched as a community-editable website in October 2000. it is operated by ...

Rum Jungle mine site, Department of Resources
at
Government of the Northern Territory The Northern Territory Government is the executive branch of the Northern Territory. The Government of Northern Territory was formed in 1978 with the granting of self-government to the Territory. The Northern Territory is a territory of the Co ...
{{authority control Uranium mines in the Northern Territory Mining towns in the Northern Territory Surface mines in Australia Underground mines in Australia Underwater diving sites in Australia Underwater diving quarries Mining in the Northern Territory