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''Rubus armeniacus'', the Himalayan blackberry or Armenian blackberry, is a species of ''
Rubus ''Rubus'' is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae, most commonly known as brambles. Fruits of various species are known as raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, and bristleberries. ...
'' in the
blackberry BlackBerry is a discontinued brand of handheld devices and related mobile services, originally developed and maintained by the Canadian company Research In Motion (RIM, later known as BlackBerry Limited) until 2016. The first BlackBerry device ...
group ''Rubus'' subgenus ''Rubus'' series ''Discolores'' (P.J. Müll.) Focke. It is native to
Armenia Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...
and northern
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
, and widely invasive elsewhere. Both its scientific name and origin have been the subject of much confusion. In some areas, the plant is cultivated for its berries, but in many areas it is considered a
noxious weed A noxious weed, harmful weed or injurious weed is a weed that has been designated by an agricultural or other governing authority as a plant that is harmful to agricultural or horticultural crops, natural habitats or ecosystems, or humans or lives ...
and an
invasive species An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native spec ...
.


Description

''Rubus armeniacus'' is a
perennial In horticulture, the term perennial ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. It has thus been defined as a plant that lives more than 2 years. The term is also ...
plant that bears biennial stems ("canes") from the perennial root system. In its first year a new stem grows vigorously to its full length of 4–10 m, trailing along the ground or arching up to 4 m high. The stem is stout, up to diameter at the base, and green; it is polygonal (usually hexagonal) in cross-section, with fearsome thorns up to 1.5 cm long forming along the ribs. The canes can turn more red/purple if they are exposed to bright sunlight. This is common in the summer. The
leaves A leaf (: leaves) is a principal appendage of the stem of a vascular plant, usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, stem, ...
on first-year shoots are 7–20 cm long, palmately compound with either three or more commonly five leaflets. The leaflets are moderately serrated. Flowers are not produced on first-year shoots. In its second year, the stem does not grow longer, but produces several side shoots, which bear smaller leaves with three leaflets (rarely a single leaflet). These leaflets are oval-acute, dark green above and pale to whitish below, with a toothed margin, and snaring, hooked thorns along the midrib on the underside. The
flower Flowers, also known as blooms and blossoms, are the reproductive structures of flowering plants ( angiosperms). Typically, they are structured in four circular levels, called whorls, around the end of a stalk. These whorls include: calyx, m ...
s are produced in late spring and early summer on
panicle In botany, a panicle is a much-branched inflorescence. (softcover ). Some authors distinguish it from a compound spike inflorescence, by requiring that the flowers (and fruit) be pedicellate (having a single stem per flower). The branches of a p ...
s of 3–20 together on the tips of the second-year side shoots, each flower 2–2.5 cm diameter with five white or pale pink
petal Petals are modified leaves that form an inner whorl surrounding the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly coloured or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''corol ...
s. The flowers are
bisexual Bisexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or sexual behavior toward both males and females. It may also be defined as the attraction to more than one gender, to people of both the same and different gender, or the attraction t ...
(perfect) containing both male and female reproductive structures. The
fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (angiosperms) that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propaga ...
in botanical terminology is not a
berry A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples of berries in the cul ...
, but an
aggregate fruit A raspberry_beetle.html" ;"title="raspberry fruit (shown with a raspberry beetle">raspberry fruit (shown with a raspberry beetle larva) is an aggregate fruit, an aggregate of drupelets. image:Aquilegia vulgaris 004.JPG, The fruit of an ''Aquilegi ...
of numerous
drupe In botany, a drupe (or stone fruit) is a type of fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the ''pip'' (UK), ''pit'' (US), ''stone'', or ''pyrena'') of hardened endocarp with a seed ...
lets, 1.2–2 cm diameter, ripening black or dark purple. Both first- and second-year shoots are spiny, with short, stout, curved, sharp spines. Mature plants form a tangle of dense arching stems, the branches rooting from the node tip when they reach the ground.Francis, J.K. (2003). ''Rubus discolor'' Weihe & Nees
pdf file
/ref> The fleshy growing cane tips contain the
antifeedant Antifeedants are organic compounds produced by plants to repel herbivores through distaste or toxicity. These chemical compounds are typically classified as secondary metabolites in that they are not essential for the metabolism of the plant, but ...
compounds, 2-heptanol and
methyl salicylate Methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen or wintergreen oil) is an organic compound with the formula C8H8O3. It is the methyl ester of salicylic acid. It is a colorless, viscous liquid with a sweet, fruity odor reminiscent of root beer (in which it ...
at higher concentrations than mature leaves. At the concentration found in the growing cane tips, 2-heptanol is a banana slug ('' Ariolimax columbianus'') antifeedant. The lack of phytophagous insects observed on the growing cane tips is likely due to the presence of methyl salicylate. This compound is a known
aphid Aphids are small sap-sucking insects in the Taxonomic rank, family Aphididae. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white Eriosomatinae, woolly ...
repellant and has been shown to attract predators in response to insect herbivory.


Taxonomy

Both the scientific name and the species' origin have been the subject of much confusion, with much of the literature referring to it as either ''Rubus procerus'' or ''Rubus discolor'', and often mistakenly citing its origin as western European.Ceska, A. (1999). ''Rubus armeniacus'' – a correct name for Himalayan Blackberries ''Botanical Electronic News'' 230. Availabl
online
Flora of NW Europe
''Rubus armeniacus''
/ref> ''
Flora of North America The ''Flora of North America North of Mexico'' (usually referred to as ''FNA'') is a multivolume work describing the native plants and naturalized plants of North America, including the United States, Canada, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and Greenla ...
'', published in 2014, considers the taxonomy unsettled, and tentatively uses the older name '' Rubus bifrons''.


As an invasive species


Spread

Luther Burbank Luther Burbank (March 7, 1849 – April 11, 1926) was an American botanist, horticulturist, and pioneer in agricultural science who developed more than 800 strains and varieties of plants over his 55-year career. Burbank primarily worked with ...
, who popularized the misleading name "Himalayan", introduced ''Rubus armeniacus'' to North America in 1885 in
Santa Rosa, California Santa Rosa (Spanish language, Spanish for "Rose of Lima, Saint Rose") is a city in and the county seat of Sonoma County, California, Sonoma County, in the North Bay (San Francisco Bay Area), North Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area, Bay A ...
, using seeds that he imported from India. The species thrived in its new environment, notably for the large amount of berries it produced. By 1915, it was widely grown and cultivated in the United States. It soon escaped from cultivation, and became an
invasive species An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native spec ...
in most of the temperate world and the U.S. Pacific Coast by 1945.USDA Plant Profile
''Rubus armeniacus''
/ref> It is listed as an invasive species in the U.S. State of Missouri and prohibited in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. Because it is so hard to contain, it quickly gets out of control, with birds and other animals eating the fruit and then spreading the seeds. It is highly flammable and a common ladder fuel for wildfires, due to the litter and dead canes produced by the plant. It is especially established west of the Cascades in the American Pacific Northwest and in parts of southern British Columbia along the coast, in the
Lower Mainland The Lower Mainland is a geographic and cultural region of the mainland coast of British Columbia that generally comprises the regional districts of Metro Vancouver and the Fraser Valley. Home to approximately 3.05million people as of the 2021 ...
, and throughout
Vancouver Island Vancouver Island is an island in the northeastern Pacific Ocean and part of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The island is in length, in width at its widest point, and in total area, while are of land. The island is the largest ...
. It does well in riparian zones due to the abundance of other species in these areas, which allows it to go relatively unnoticed until it has had a chance to establish itself. Unlike other invasive species, this plant can easily establish itself and continue to spread in ecosystems that have not experienced a disturbance. The plant itself develops large root systems, allowing it to find water from other sources than just the immediate area. It can also hold onto water in its canes, allowing it to thrive more than other plants during dry seasons or droughts. Himalayan blackberries grow very well in sandy, well-drained soil with a lot of natural light, even if the soil is lacking in nutrients. All of the Himalayan blackberry's adaptations to grow in these conditions continue to make it a difficult plant to remove and an invasive species. ''R.'' ''armeniacus'' is able to survive during drought periods because of their extensive root systems. Not only are their roots spread out over a wide area, they also can go very deep underground, allowing them to reach water most smaller plants and shrubs would not reach. They also store more water in their canes that act like a water reservoir. This added water also allows them to release oxygen and take in more CO2 without fearing major losses of water. Since they store water in their canes and roots, they have excess water ready for use or for loss when opening their stomata.


Management

Cutting the canes to the ground, or burning thickets of ''Rubus armeniacus'' are ineffective removal strategies. The best practices for removal include digging up the rhizomes and connecting underground structures, and herbicides. Broken roots can resprout, making manual removal extra labor-intensive, and
glyphosate Glyphosate (IUPAC name: ''N''-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant. It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by EPSP inhibitor, inhibiting the plant enzyme 5-en ...
herbicides are largely ineffective with this plant.


Cultivation


Berry crop

The species was introduced to Europe in 1835 and to Australia and North America in 1885. It was valued for its edible fruit, similar to that of common
blackberries BlackBerry is a discontinued brand of handheld devices and related mobile services, originally developed and maintained by the Canadian company Research In Motion (RIM, later known as BlackBerry Limited) until 2016. The first BlackBerry device ...
(e.g. ''
Rubus fruticosus ''Rubus fruticosus'' L. is the ambiguous name of a European blackberry species in the genus ''Rubus'' (part of the rose family). The name has been interpreted in several ways: *The species represented by the type specimen of ''Rubus fruticosu ...
'') but larger and sweeter, making it a more attractive species for both domestic and commercial fruit production. The immature fruits are smaller, red, and hard with a much more sour taste. The
cultivar A cultivar is a kind of Horticulture, cultivated plant that people have selected for desired phenotypic trait, traits and which retains those traits when Plant propagation, propagated. Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root a ...
s ''Himalayan Giant'' and ''Theodore Reimers'' are commonly planted. ''Rubus armeniacus'' was used in the cultivation of the
Marionberry The marionberry (''Rubus L.'' subgenus ''Rubus'') is a cultivar of blackberry released in 1956 by the USDA Agricultural Research Service breeding program in cooperation with Oregon State University. It is named after Marion County, Oregon, whe ...
cultivar of blackberry.


Cover

When established for several years, if left alone ''Rubus armeniacus'' can grow into a large cluster of canes. These thickets can provide good nesting grounds for birds, and help to provide places to rest/hide for other slightly larger mammals, such as rabbits, squirrels, and beavers. While areas with ''R. armeniacus'' provide good sources for bird nests, birds prefer areas with more natural/native plants when given the option.


See also

*
Black raspberry Black raspberry is a common name for three species of the genus ''Rubus'': *''Rubus leucodermis'', native to western North America *''Rubus occidentalis ''Rubus occidentalis'' is a species of ''Rubus'' native to eastern North America. I ...
* '' Rubus allegheniensis'', common blackberry, native to Eastern U.S.


References


External links

* * *
Bugwood Wiki

photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in Missouri in 1995
{{Taxonbar, from=Q163056 armeniacus Flora of Armenia Flora of Iran Berries Plants described in 1874