Rosh Hashanah () is the name of a text of

Jewish law ''Halakha'' ( ; , ), also transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws that are derived from the Written and Oral Torah. ''Halakha'' is based on biblical commandments ('' mit ...

originating in the

Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; , from the verb ''šānā'', "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first written collection of the Jewish oral traditions that are known as the Oral Torah. Having been collected in the 3rd century CE, it is ...

which formed the basis of tractates in both the

Babylonian Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the centerpiece of Jewi ...

and the

Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud (, often for short) or Palestinian Talmud, also known as the Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century Jewish oral tradition known as the Mishnah. Naming this version of the Talm ...

of the same name. It is the eighth tractate of the order ''

Moed Moed (, "Festivals") is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud). Of the six orders of the Mishna, Moed is the third shortest. The order of Moed consists ...

''. The text contains the most important rules concerning the calendar year, together with a description of the inauguration of the months, laws on the form and use of the

shofar A shofar ( ; from , ) is an ancient musical horn, typically a ram's horn, used for Jewish ritual purposes. Like the modern bugle, the shofar lacks pitch-altering devices, with all pitch control done by varying the player's embouchure. The ...

and laws related to the religious services during the

Jewish holiday Jewish holidays, also known as Jewish festivals or ''Yamim Tovim'' (, or singular , in transliterated Hebrew []), are holidays observed by Jews throughout the Hebrew calendar.This article focuses on practices of mainstream Rabbinic Judaism. ...

Rosh Hashanah Rosh Hashanah (, , ) is the New Year in Judaism. The Hebrew Bible, biblical name for this holiday is Yom Teruah (, , ). It is the first of the High Holy Days (, , 'Days of Awe"), as specified by Leviticus 23:23–25, that occur in the late summe ...

Mishna

The

commences with an account of the four beginnings of the religious and the civil year ( 1:1); it speaks of the four judgement-days of the pilgrim festivals and Rosh ha-Shanah ( 1:2); of the six months in which the messengers of the

Sanhedrin The Sanhedrin (Hebrew and Middle Aramaic , a loanword from , 'assembly,' 'sitting together,' hence ' assembly' or 'council') was a Jewish legislative and judicial assembly of either 23 or 70 elders, existing at both a local and central level i ...

announce the month ( 1:3); of the two months, the beginnings of which witnesses announce to the Sanhedrin even on the Sabbath ( 1:4), and even if the moon is visible to every one ( 1:5);

Gamliel Gamaliel (''Heb.'' גמליאל), also spelled Gamliel, is a Hebrew name generally interpreted "God (אל) is my (י-) reward/recompense (גמל)". Solomon Gandz suggests instead that it should be read "battle-axe of God" ( AAJR 2 pg. 37). A number ...

even sent on the

Sabbath In Abrahamic religions, the Sabbath () or Shabbat (from Hebrew ) is a day set aside for rest and worship. According to the Book of Exodus, the Sabbath is a day of rest on the seventh day, Ten Commandments, commanded by God to be kept as a Holid ...

for forty pairs of witnesses from a distance (1:6); when father and son (who as relatives may otherwise not witness together) behold the

new moon In astronomy, the new moon is the first lunar phase, when the Moon and Sun have the same ecliptic longitude. At this phase, the lunar disk is not visible to the naked eye, except when it is silhouetted against the Sun during a solar eclipse. ...

they must set out for the '' beth din'' (1:7), since they do not absolutely belong to those that are legally unfit for this purpose (1:8). The weak and sick are borne on litters, and are protected against the attacks of the

Sadducee The Sadducees (; ) were a sect of Jews active in Judea during the Second Temple period, from the second century BCE to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. The Sadducees are described in contemporary literary sources in contrast to ...

s; they must be provided with food, for witnesses were bound to journey even on the Sabbath (1:9). Others went along to identify the unknown (2:1). In olden times

bonfire A bonfire is a large and controlled outdoor fire, used for waste disposal or as part of a religious feast, such as Saint John's Eve. Etymology The earliest attestations date to the late 15th century, with the Catholicon Anglicum spelling i ...

-signals on the mountains announced to all as far as

Babylon Babylon ( ) was an ancient city located on the lower Euphrates river in southern Mesopotamia, within modern-day Hillah, Iraq, about south of modern-day Baghdad. Babylon functioned as the main cultural and political centre of the Akkadian-s ...

that the month had been sanctified. The custom of having witnesses and messengers was introduced after the Sadducees had attempted to practice deception (2:2–4). The large court called ''

Bet Ya'azeḳ Black Entertainment Television (BET) is an American basic cable channel targeting Black American audiences. It is the flagship channel of the BET Media Group, a subsidiary of Paramount Global's CBS Entertainment Group. Originally launched as a ...

'' was the assembly-place for the witnesses (2:5); bountiful repasts awaited them, and dispensations from the Law were granted to them (2:6); the first pair of witnesses was questioned separately concerning the appearance of the moon, but all other witnesses were questioned at least cursorily. The Mishnah makes the point that all witnesses must be made to feel their testimony is valued to ensure witnesses continue to come to courts (2:6). Then the ''

av bet din The ''av beit din'' (), abbreviated ( ''avad''), was the second-highest-ranking member of the Sanhedrin during the Second Temple period and served as an assistant to the nasi. The av beit din was known as the "Master of the Court;" he was conside ...

'' (head of the Court) called out to a large assembly, "Sanctified!" all the people cried out aloud after him (2:8). Rabban

Gamliel II Rabban Gamaliel II (also spelled Gamliel; ; before –) was a rabbi from the second generation of tannaim. He was the first person to lead the Sanhedrin as ''nasi'' after the fall of the Second Temple in 70 CE. He was the son of Shimon ben Gam ...

had representations of the moon which he showed to the witnesses. There once arose a dispute between him and Rabbi Yehoshua regarding the

Tishri Tishrei () or Tishri (; ''tīšrē'' or ''tīšrī''; from Akkadian language, Akkadian ''tašrītu'' "beginning", from ''šurrû'' "to begin") is the first month of the civil year (which starts on 1 Tishrei) and the seventh month of the eccles ...

moon; the latter, in obedience to the ''

nasi Nasi may refer to: Food Dishes Nasi Goreng is an Indonesian and Malay word for ''cooked rice'', featured in many Southeast Asian dishes *Nasi goreng, a popular rice dish often simply called ''nasi'' *Other Southeast Asian ''nasi'' dishes: ** Nasi ...

'', came on foot to Jamnia on the day which he had calculated to be the

Day of Atonement Yom Kippur ( ; , ) is the holiest day of the year in Judaism. It occurs annually on the 10th of Tishrei, corresponding to a date in late September or early October. For traditional Jewish people, it is primarily centered on atonement and ...

, and the two scholars made peace (iii.). There were various obstacles to the sanctification of the months, as when time was lacking for the ceremony, or when there were no witnesses present before the ''bet din''. In the first case the following day became the new moon; in the second case the ''bet din'' alone performed the sanctification. The Mishnah discusses also the laws of the

(3:2); the horn of the cow may not be used (3:2); the form of the trumpet for Rosh haShanah, the fast-day, and Yovel is determined (3:3–5); damage to the shofar and means of repair are indicated (3:6); in times of danger the people that pray assemble in pits and caves (3:7); one passing a synagogue who hears the shofar fulfills his obligation only if he intended to fulfill it (3:7); they are exhorted to be firm by being reminded of

Moses In Abrahamic religions, Moses was the Hebrews, Hebrew prophet who led the Israelites out of slavery in the The Exodus, Exodus from ancient Egypt, Egypt. He is considered the most important Prophets in Judaism, prophet in Judaism and Samaritani ...

' uplifted hands in the war with the Amalekites (3:8). Deaf-mutes, insane, and children are legally unfit for blowing the shofar.

Johanan ben Zakkai Yohanan ben Zakkai (; 1st century CE), sometimes abbreviated as for Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai, was a tanna, an important Jewish sage during the late Second Temple period during the transformative post-destruction era. He was a primary cont ...

established that the shofar be blown at

Yavneh Yavne () is a city in the Central District of Israel. In 2022, it had a population of 56,232. Modern Yavne was established in 1949. It is located near the ruins of the ancient town of Yibna (known also as Jamnia and Jabneh), later the village of ...

and the surrounding places even if the festival fell on Shabbat, while at one time this was done only in the

Temple A temple (from the Latin ) is a place of worship, a building used for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. By convention, the specially built places of worship of some religions are commonly called "temples" in Engli ...

(4:1); he also fixed the ''

lulav ''Lulav'' (; ) is a closed frond of the date palm tree. It is one of the Four Species used during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. The other Species are the '' hadass'' ( myrtle), ''aravah'' (willow), and ''etrog'' (citron). When bound together, ...

'' outside of the Temple for seven days, and forbade the eating of new grain on the second day of

Passover Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday and one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals. It celebrates the Exodus of the Israelites from slavery in Biblical Egypt, Egypt. According to the Book of Exodus, God in ...

(4:2); he extended the time for examining witnesses until the evening, and had them come to Yavneh even in the absence of the ''av bet din'' (4:3). The Mishnah then discusses of the order of Rosh Hashanah

Mussaf Mussaf (also spelled Musaf or Musof) is an additional service that is recited on Shabbat, Yom Tov, Chol Hamoed, and Rosh Chodesh. The service, which is traditionally combined with the Shacharit in synagogues, is considered to be additional to t ...

prayers (4:4); of the succession of the ''Malkhuyot'', ''Zikhronot'', and ''Shofarot''; of the Bible verses concerning the kingdom of God, Providence, and the trumpet-call of the future (4:5), and of the leader in prayer and his relation to the '' teki'ah'' (4:6); descriptions of the festival are given in reference to the shofar (4:7); then follows the order of the traditional trumpet-sounds (4:8); and remarks on the duties of the leader in prayer and of the congregation close the treatise (4:9).

Tosefta

Curious as is the order of subjects followed in this treatise, in which several mishnaic sources have been combined, the ''

Tosefta The Tosefta ( "supplement, addition") is a compilation of Jewish Oral Law from the late second century, the period of the Mishnah and the Jewish sages known as the '' Tannaim''. Background Jewish teachings of the Tannaitic period were cha ...

'' follows it, adding comments that form the basis of the ''

Gemara The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Yiddish Gemore) is an essential component of the Talmud, comprising a collection of rabbinical analyses and commentaries on the Mishnah and presented in 63 books. The term is derived from the Aram ...

'' in both Talmuds. The contents of the Mishnah with the corresponding sections of the Tosefta are as follows: General calendar for the year, 1:1–4 = Tosefta 1:1–13. Regulations concerning the months' witnesses, 1:5–2:1 (connecting with 1:4) = Tosefta 1:15–2:1 (abbreviated). Historical matter regarding fire-signals and messengers and their reception on the Sabbath, 2:2–6 = Tosefta 2:2 (abbreviated). The continuation of the laws of 2:1 concerning witnesses (2:7, 8), and the questioning of witnesses, and the sanctification of the months are entirely lacking in the Tosefta. Historical data concerning Gamaliel and the dispute with Joshua, 2:8–9 = Tosefta 2:3 (a mere final teaching). Continuation of the laws of 2:7 concerning witnesses, 3:1 = Tosefta 3:1, 2. Regulations regarding the shofar and its use, 3:2–5 = Tosefta 3:3–6a.

Aggadic Aggadah (, or ; ; 'tales', 'legend', 'lore') is the non-legalistic exegesis which appears in the classical rabbinic literature of Judaism, particularly the Talmud and Midrash. In general, Aggadah is a compendium of rabbinic texts that incorporat ...

teaching on devotion = Tosefta 3:6b. Final remarks on the shofar and on its obligations, 3:6–end = Tosefta 4:1. Ordinances of Johanan ben Zakkai concerning Rosh ha-Shanah and the Sabbath, and other matters = Tosefta 4:2. Order of worship, 4:5–end = Tosefta 4:4–end. Mishnah 2:7 seems to have been transposed according to Tosefta 4:3, but it belongs there according to its contents. In quoting many of Gamliel's ordinances the Mishnah emphasizes the authority of the patriarchal house by recounting the dispute between the patriarch and his deputy Joshua and showing how the latter was forced to yield. The ''Tosefta'' omits the ordinances of Gamliel and of Johanan ben Zakkai, and the dispute of the two leaders of the school-house, nor does it mention anything of the power of any

tannaitic ''Tannaim'' ( Amoraic Hebrew: תנאים "repeaters", "teachers", singular ''tanna'' , borrowed from Aramaic) were the rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 10–220 CE. The period of the Tannaim, also refe ...

dignitary; the ''Tosefta'' is here a product of the time of the

Amoraim ''Amoraim'' ( , singular ''Amora'' ; "those who say" or "those who speak over the people", or "spokesmen") refers to Jewish scholars of the period from about 200 to 500 CE, who "said" or "told over" the teachings of the Oral Torah. They were p ...

. The dignity of the ''nasi'' is not emphasized, because acumen and scholarship prevailed in the schoolhouse, and there was no desire to let old precedences (see ''

Eduyot Tractate Eduyot (Hebrew: עדויות, lit. "testimonies") is the seventh tractate in the order Nezikin of the Mishnah. When, after the destruction of the Temple, it became necessary, through the removal of R. Gamaliel II from the office of patri ...

'') come to the fore again. Even the Mishnah contains some additions from the time of the Amoraim (see, for example, 4:2, where a gap must be filled from the Tosefta).

References

External links

Rosh Hashanah text in Hebrew Full Hebrew and English text of the Mishnah for tractate Rosh Hashana
on

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Full Hebrew and English text of the Talmud Bavli for tractate Rosh Hashana
on

Full Hebrew and English text of the Talmud Yerushalmi for tractate Rosh Hashana
on

{{Authority control Rosh Hashanah Tractates of the Talmud

Mishna

Tosefta

References

See also

External links