Romanian Traditions
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The culture of Romania is an umbrella term used to encapsulate the ideas, customs and social behaviours of the people of Romania that developed due to the country's distinct geopolitical history and evolution. It is theorized that
Romanians Romanians (, ; dated Endonym and exonym, exonym ''Vlachs'') are a Romance languages, Romance-speaking ethnic group and nation native to Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. Sharing a Culture of Romania, ...
and related peoples (
Aromanians The Aromanians () are an Ethnic groups in Europe, ethnic group native to the southern Balkans who speak Aromanian language, Aromanian, an Eastern Romance language. They traditionally live in central and southern Albania, south-western Bulgari ...
,
Megleno-Romanians The Megleno-Romanians, also known as Meglenites (), Moglenite Vlachs or simply Vlachs (), are an Eastern Romance ethnic group, originally inhabiting seven villages in the Moglena region spanning the Pella and Kilkis regional units of Central ...
, and
Istro-Romanians The Istro-Romanians ( or ) are a Romance languages, Romance ethnic group native to or associated with the Istria, Istrian Peninsula. Historically, they inhabited vast parts of it, as well as the western side of the island of Krk until 1875. Howe ...
) were formed through the admixture of the descendants of Roman colonists and the indigenous Dacian people who were subsequently
Romanized In linguistics, romanization is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, ...
.


Background

Romania's history has been full of rebounds: the culturally productive epochs were those of stability when the people proved quite an impressive resourcefulness in the making up for less propitious periods and were able to rejoin the mainstream of
European culture The culture of Europe is diverse, and rooted in its art, architecture, traditions, cuisines, music, folklore, embroidery, film, literature, economics, philosophy and religious customs. Definition Whilst there are a great number of pers ...
. This stands true for the years after the Phanariote- Ottoman period, at the beginning of the 19th century, when Romanians had a historical context and Romania started to become westernized, mainly with French influences, which they pursued steadily and at a very fast pace. From the end of the 18th century, the sons of the upper classes started having their education in
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
, and French became (and was until the communist years) a genuine second language of culture for Romanians. The modeling role of France, especially in the fields of political ideas, administration, and law, as well as in literature, was paralleled, from the mid-19th century down to
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, by German culture as well, which also triggered constant relationships with the German world not only at a cultural level but in daily life as well. With the arrival of Soviet communism in the area, Romania quickly adopted many soviet influences, and
Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...
was also widely taught in the country during Romania's socialist years.


History


Middle Ages

Until the 14th century, small states (
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
: ''voievodate'') were spread across the territory of
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
,
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
, and
Moldavia Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
. The medieval principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia arose in the mid 1300s, in the areas south and east of the
Carpathian Mountains The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe and Southeast Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Ural Mountains, Urals at and the Scandinav ...
respectively. Moldavia and Wallachia were both situated on important commercial routes often crossed by Polish, Saxon, Greek, Armenian,
Genovese Genovese is an Italian surname meaning, properly, someone from Genoa. Its Italian plural form '' Genovesi'' has also developed into a surname. People * Alfred Genovese (1931–2011), American oboist * Alfredo Genovese (born 1964), Argentine arti ...
, and Venetian merchants, connecting them well to the evolving culture of medieval Europe.
Grigore Ureche Grigore Ureche (; 1590–1647) was a Moldavian chronicler who wrote on Moldavian history in his ''Letopisețul Țării Moldovei'' ('' Chronicles of the Land of Moldavia''), covering the period from 1359 to 1594. Biography Grigore Ureche was th ...
's
chronicle A chronicle (, from Greek ''chroniká'', from , ''chrónos'' – "time") is a historical account of events arranged in chronological order, as in a timeline. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and local events ...
, ''Letopisețul Țărîi Moldovei'' (''The Chronicles of the land of Moldavia''), covering the period from 1359 to 1594, is a very important source of information about life, events, and personalities in Moldavia. It is among the first non-religious Romanian literary texts; due to its size and the information that it contains, it is arguably the most important Romanian document from the 17th century. The first printed book, a prayer book in Slavonic, was produced in Wallachia in 1508, and the first book in Romanian, a
catechism A catechism (; from , "to teach orally") is a summary or exposition of Catholic theology, doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult co ...
, was printed in Transylvania, in 1544. At the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century, European
humanism Humanism is a philosophy, philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and Agency (philosophy), agency of human beings, whom it considers the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The me ...
influenced the works of
Miron Costin Miron Costin (March 30, 1633 – 1691) was a Moldavian (Romanians, Romanian) political figure and chronicler. His main work, ''Letopiseţul Ţărâi Moldovei e la Aron Vodă încoace' (''The Chronicles of the land of Moldavia rom the rule ...
and Ion Neculce, the Moldavian chroniclers">Ion Neculce">rom the rule ...
and Ion Neculce, the Moldavian chroniclers who continued Ureche's work. Constantin Brâncoveanu, List of rulers of Wallachia, prince of Wallachia, was a great patron of the arts and was a local Renaissance figure. During Șerban Cantacuzino's reign, the monks at the monastery of Snagov, near
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
, published in 1688 the first translated and printed Romanian
Bible The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) originally writt ...
(''Biblia de la București'' – The Bucharest Bible). The first successful attempts at written Romanian-language poetry were made in 1673 when Dosoftei, a Moldavian metropolitan in
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the Cities in Romania, third largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical ...
, published a Romanian metrical
psalter A psalter is a volume containing the Book of Psalms, often with other devotional material bound in as well, such as a liturgical calendar and litany of the Saints. Until the emergence of the book of hours in the Late Middle Ages, psalters were ...
.
Dimitrie Cantemir Dimitrie or Demetrius; Cantemir (; ; 26 October 1673 – 21 August 1723), also known by other spellings, was a Moldavian prince, statesman, and man of letters. He twice served as voivode of Moldavia (March–April 1693 and 1710–1711). Durin ...
, a Moldavian prince, was an important personality of the medieval period in Moldavia. His interests included philosophy, history, music, linguistics, ethnography, and geography. His most important works containing information about the Romanian regions were '' Descriptio Moldaviae'', published in 1769, and ''Hronicul vechimii a romano-moldo-valahilor'' (roughly, ''Chronicle of the Antiquity of the Romano-Moldavo-Wallachians''), the first critical history of Romania. His works were also known in western Europe, as he authored writings in Latin: ''Descriptio Moldaviae'' (commissioned by the Academy of Berlin, the member of which he became in 1714) and ''Incrementa atque decrementa aulae othomanicae'', which was printed in English between 1734–1735 (second edition in 1756), in French in 1743 and in German in 1745 ; the latter was a major reference work in European science and culture up until the 19th century.


Classical Age

In
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
, although they formed the majority of the population, Romanians were merely seen as a "tolerated nation" by the Austrian leadership of the province, and were not proportionally represented in political life and the
Transylvanian Diet The Transylvanian Diet (; ; ) was an important legislative, administrative and judicial body of the Principality (from 1765 Grand Principality) of Transylvania between 1570 and 1867. The general assemblies of the Transylvanian noblemen and the jo ...
. At the end of the 18th century an emancipation movement known as the ''
Transylvanian School The Transylvanian School () was a cultural and political movement which started after part of the Romanian Orthodox Church in Habsburg-ruled Transylvania accepted the leadership of the pope and became the Greek-Catholic Church (). The links with ...
'' (''Școala Ardeleană'') was formed, emphasizing the Roman element of the Romanian people, and making significant strides in the formation of a modern Latin-based
Romanian alphabet The Romanian alphabet is a variant of the Latin alphabet used for writing the Romanian language. It consists of 31 letters, five of which (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, and Ț) have been modified from their Latin originals for the phonetic requirements of t ...
(which eventually supplanted an earlier
Cyrillic The Cyrillic script ( ) is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia. It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking countries in Southeastern Europe, Ea ...
script). It formed following the Act of Union of 1698, which declared the full communion with the
See of Rome See or SEE may refer to: * Visual perception Arts, entertainment, and media * Music: ** ''See'' (album), studio album by rock band The Rascals *** "See", song by The Rascals, on the album ''See'' ** "See" (Tycho song), song by Tycho * Televisio ...
of the Romanian Transylvanian church under Metropolitan Atanasie Anghel. Thus, the
Romanian Greek-Catholic Church The Romanian Greek Catholic Church or Romanian Church United with Rome is a ''sui iuris'' Eastern Catholic Church, in full union with the Catholic Church. It has the rank of a Major Archbishop, Major Archiepiscopal Church and it uses the Byzanti ...
was formed, formalized by a synod of bishops on September 4, 1700. The links with Rome brought to the
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
Transylvanians the ideas of the
Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment (also the Age of Reason and the Enlightenment) was a Europe, European Intellect, intellectual and Philosophy, philosophical movement active from the late 17th to early 19th century. Chiefly valuing knowledge gained th ...
. In 1791 the Transylvanian School issued a petition to Emperor Leopold II of Austria, named ''
Supplex Libellus Valachorum ''Supplex Libellus Valachorum Transsilvaniae'' (Latin for ''Petition of the Romanians of Transylvania'') is the name of two petitions sent by the leaders of the ethnic Romanians of Transylvania to the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, demanding equ ...
'' based on the French
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human and civil rights document from the French Revolution; the French title can be translated in the modern era as "Decl ...
, demanding equal political rights with the other ethnicities for the Romanians in Transylvania. This movement, however, leaned more towards westernization in general, when in fact, the origin of the Romanian people is complex, intertwining elements from the peoples of the former Roman Empire with those of the ancient Dacians, and with the addition of 17th and 19th Eastern influences as emphasized through the Ottomans. The period from 1711 to 1821 was marked in
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
and
Moldavia Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
by the reigns of appointed Phanariote Hospodars; thus, the two principalities were heavily influenced by the Ottoman and Greek world. Greek schools appeared in the principalities, and in 1818, the first Romanian School was founded in Bucharest by
Gheorghe Lazăr Gheorghe Lazăr (5 June 1779 – 17 September 1823), was a Transylvanian Romanian scholar and the founder of the first Romanian language school in Bucharest, in 1817. Biography Lazăr was born to a peasant family in Felek, Szeben County, Habsb ...
and
Ion Heliade Rădulescu Ion Heliade Rădulescu or Ion Heliade (also known as ''Eliade'' or ''Eliade Rădulescu''; ; 6 January 1802 â€“ 27 April 1872) was a Wallachian, later Romanian academic, Romanticism, Romantic and Classicism, Classicist poet, essayist, memoi ...
. Figures such as Anton Pann, a successful novelist, emerged in that time, with Ienăchiță Văcărescu writing the first
Romanian grammar Standard Romanian (i.e. the '' Daco-Romanian'' language within Eastern Romance) shares largely the same grammar and most of the vocabulary and phonological processes with the other three surviving varieties of Eastern Romance, namely Aromanian, ...
, and his nephew
Iancu Văcărescu Iancu Văcărescu (1786–1863) was a Romanians, Romanian Wallachian boyar and poet, member of the Văcărescu family. Biography The son of Alecu Văcărescu, descending from a long line of Wallachia, Wallachian Intellectual, men of letters &md ...
becoming what is considered to be the first important Romanian poet. In 1821, an uprising in Wallachia took place against Phanariote rule. This uprising was led by the Romanian revolutionary and militia leader
Tudor Vladimirescu Tudor Vladimirescu (; c. 1780 – ) was a Romanian revolutionary hero, the leader of the Wallachian uprising of 1821 and of the Pandur militia. He is also known as Tudor din Vladimiri (''Tudor from Vladimiri'') or, occasionally, as Domnul Tudor ...
, and would eventually lead to the restoration of Romanian princes on the thrones of the
Danubian Principalities The Danubian Principalities (, ) was a conventional name given to the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which emerged in the early 14th century. The term was coined in the Habsburg monarchy after the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) ...
. The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes also in Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, and a new elite had emerged from the revolutions represented by figures such as:
Mihail Kogălniceanu Mihail Kogălniceanu (; also known as Mihail Cogâlniceanu, Michel de Kogalnitchan; September 6, 1817 – July 1, 1891) was a Romanian Liberalism, liberal statesman, lawyer, historian and publicist; he became Prime Minister of Romania on Octo ...
(writer, politician, and the first prime minister of Romania),
Vasile Alecsandri Vasile Alecsandri (; 21 July 182122 August 1890) was a Romanian patriot, poet, dramatist, politician and diplomat. He was one of the key figures during the 1848 revolutions in Moldavia and Wallachia. He fought for the unification of the Roma ...
(politician, playwright, and poet),
Andrei MureÈ™anu Andrei MureÈ™anu (; November 16, 1816 in BistriÈ›a – October 12, 1863 in BraÈ™ov) was a Romanian poet and revolutionary of Transylvania. Born in a family of a small business owner in the countryside, he studied philosophy and theology ...
(publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and
Nicolae Bălcescu Nicolae Bălcescu () (29 June 181929 November 1852) was a Romanian Wallachian soldier, historian, journalist, and leader of the 1848 Wallachian Revolution. Early life Born in Bucharest to a family of low-ranking nobility, he used his mother ...
(historian, writer and revolutionary). The union between Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 brought a growing consolidation of Romanian life and culture. Universities were opened in
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the Cities in Romania, third largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical ...
and in
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
, and the number of new cultural establishments grew significantly. The new prince from 1866 and then
King of Romania The King of Romania () or King of the Romanians () was the title of the monarch of the Kingdom of Romania from 1881 until 1947, when the Romanian Workers' Party proclaimed the Romanian People's Republic following Michael I's forced abdication. ...
,
Carol I Carol I or Charles I of Romania (born Karl Eitel Friedrich Zephyrinus Ludwig von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; 20 April 1839 – ), was the monarch of Romania from 1866 to his death in 1914, ruling as Prince (''Domnitor'') from 1866 to 1881, and as ...
, was a devoted king, and he and his wife Elisabeth were among the main patrons of arts. Of great impact in Romanian literature was the literary society
Junimea ''Junimea'' was a Romanian literary society founded in Iași in 1863, through the initiative of several foreign-educated personalities led by Titu Maiorescu, Petre P. Carp, Vasile Pogor, Theodor Rosetti and Iacob Negruzzi. The foremost personali ...
, founded in 1863 by the circle of literary critic
Titu Maiorescu Titu Liviu Maiorescu (; 15 February 1840 – 18 June 1917) was a Romanian literary critic and politician, founder of the ''Junimea'' Society. As a literary critic, he was instrumental in the development of Culture of Romania, Romanian culture in ...
. It published its cultural journal ''Convorbiri Literare'' where, among others,
Mihai Eminescu Mihai Eminescu (; born Mihail Eminovici; 15 January 1850 – 15 June 1889) was a Romanians, Romanian Romanticism, Romantic poet, novelist, and journalist from Moldavia, generally regarded as the most famous and influential Romanian poet. Emin ...
, Romania's greatest poet, Ion Creangă, a storyteller of genius, and
Ion Luca Caragiale Ion Luca Caragiale (; According to his birth certificate, published and discussed by Constantin Popescu-Cadem in ''Manuscriptum'', Vol. VIII, Nr. 2, 1977, pp. 179–184 – 9 June 1912), commonly referred to as I. L. Caragiale, was a Romanians, ...
, novelist and Romania's greatest playwright, published most of their groundbreaking works. During the same period,
Nicolae Grigorescu Nicolae Grigorescu (; 15 May 1838 – 21 July 1907) was one of the founders of modern Romanian painting. He is considered by Romanians the greatest Romanian painter, and one of the founders of modern Romanian art. He is most known for paintin ...
and
Ștefan Luchian Ștefan Luchian (, last name also spelled Lukian; 1 February 1868 – 28 June 1916) was a Romanian painter, famous for his landscapes and still life works. Biography Early life Luchian was born in Ștefănești, a village of Botoșani County, ...
founded modern Romanian painting; celebrated composer Ciprian Porumbescu was also from this time. In Transylvania, the emancipation movement became better organized, and in 1861, an important cultural organization by the name of ASTRA (''The Transylvanian Association for Romanian Literature and the Culture of the Romanian People'') was founded in
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , , Hungarian: ''Nagyszeben'', , Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'' or ''Hermestatt'') is a city in central Romania, situated in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles th ...
under the close supervision of the Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan
Andrei Șaguna Andrei Șaguna (; 20 January 1808, Miskolc, Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867), Hungary – 28 June 1873, Nagyszeben, Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918), Hungary) was a Metropolitan bishop of the Romanian Orthodox Church in Transylvania, and one of ...
. It helped publish a great number of
Romanian language Romanian (obsolete spelling: Roumanian; , or , ) is the official and main language of Romania and Moldova. Romanian is part of the Eastern Romance languages, Eastern Romance sub-branch of Romance languages, a linguistic group that evolved fr ...
books and newspapers, and between 1898 and 1904, it published a Romanian Encyclopedia. Among the greatest personalities from this period are the novelist and publicist Ioan Slavici, the prose writer Panait Istrati, the poet and writer
Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea; pen name of Barbu Ștefan; April 11, 1858 – April 29, 1918) was a Romanian writer and poet, considered one of the greatest figures in the National awakening of Romania. Early life and studies He was born on April ...
, the poet and publicist
George Coșbuc George Coșbuc (; 20 September 1866 – 9 May 1918) was a Romanian poet, translator, teacher, and journalist, best remembered for his verses describing, praising and eulogizing rural life, its many travails but also its occasions for joy. In 19 ...
, the poet
Ștefan Octavian Iosif Ștefan Octavian Iosif (; 11 October 1875 – 22 June 1913) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian poet and translator. Life Born in BraÈ™ov, Transylvania (part of Austria-Hungary at the time), he studied in his native town and in Sibiu befor ...
, the historian and founder of Romanian press in Transylvania George Barițiu and Badea Cârțan, a simple peasant shepherd from Southern Transylvania who, through his actions became a symbol of the emancipation movement. File:Ion D. Negulici - C. A. Rosetti, desen ILR 166.jpg, C.A. Rosetti File:Ion Heliade Radulescu Popp.jpg,
Ion Heliade Rădulescu Ion Heliade Rădulescu or Ion Heliade (also known as ''Eliade'' or ''Eliade Rădulescu''; ; 6 January 1802 â€“ 27 April 1872) was a Wallachian, later Romanian academic, Romanticism, Romantic and Classicism, Classicist poet, essayist, memoi ...
File:Calistrat Hogas - Foto01.JPG,
Calistrat Hogaș Calistrat Hogaș (born Calistrat Dumitriu; April 19, 1848 – August 28, 1917) was a Moldavian, later Romanian prose writer. The son of a Tecuci priest, he studied at the Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, University of Iași before beginning an ove ...
File:Duiliu Zamfirescu - Foto01.jpg,
Duiliu Zamfirescu Duiliu Zamfirescu (; 30 October 1858 – 3 June 1922) was a Romanian novelist, poet, short story writer, lawyer, nationalist politician, journalist, diplomat and memoirist. In 1909, he was elected a member of the Romanian Academy, and, for a whi ...
File:George Demetrescu Mirea - Portretul lui Alexandru Odobescu.jpg, Alexandru Odobescu File:Nestor Heck - Vasile Alecsandri.jpg,
Vasile Alecsandri Vasile Alecsandri (; 21 July 182122 August 1890) was a Romanian patriot, poet, dramatist, politician and diplomat. He was one of the key figures during the 1848 revolutions in Moldavia and Wallachia. He fought for the unification of the Roma ...
File:eminescu.jpg,
Mihai Eminescu Mihai Eminescu (; born Mihail Eminovici; 15 January 1850 – 15 June 1889) was a Romanians, Romanian Romanticism, Romantic poet, novelist, and journalist from Moldavia, generally regarded as the most famous and influential Romanian poet. Emin ...
, national poet of Romania and Moldova File:Ion Creanga-Foto03.jpg, Ion Creangă File:Ion Luca Caragiale - Foto03.jpg,
Ion Luca Caragiale Ion Luca Caragiale (; According to his birth certificate, published and discussed by Constantin Popescu-Cadem in ''Manuscriptum'', Vol. VIII, Nr. 2, 1977, pp. 179–184 – 9 June 1912), commonly referred to as I. L. Caragiale, was a Romanians, ...
File:Mateiu Caragiale - Foto01.jpg,
Mateiu Caragiale Mateiu Ion Caragiale (; – 17 January 1936), also credited as Matei or Matheiu, or in the antiquated version Mateiŭ,Sorin Antohi"Romania and the Balkans. From Geocultural Bovarism to Ethnic Ontology" in ''Tr@nsit online'', Institut für die Wi ...
File:Ioan Slavici.jpg, Ioan Slavici File:D. William - T. Majorescu - Ancien Ministre et Député.jpg,
Titu Maiorescu Titu Liviu Maiorescu (; 15 February 1840 – 18 June 1917) was a Romanian literary critic and politician, founder of the ''Junimea'' Society. As a literary critic, he was instrumental in the development of Culture of Romania, Romanian culture in ...
File:George Cosbuc - Foto02.jpg,
George Coșbuc George Coșbuc (; 20 September 1866 – 9 May 1918) was a Romanian poet, translator, teacher, and journalist, best remembered for his verses describing, praising and eulogizing rural life, its many travails but also its occasions for joy. In 19 ...
File:Misu Popp - Portretul lui Andrei Muresanu.jpg,
Andrei MureÈ™anu Andrei MureÈ™anu (; November 16, 1816 in BistriÈ›a – October 12, 1863 in BraÈ™ov) was a Romanian poet and revolutionary of Transylvania. Born in a family of a small business owner in the countryside, he studied philosophy and theology ...
File:Ciprian Porumbescu - Foto.jpg, Ciprian Porumbescu File:GeorgeBarit.jpg, George Barițiu File:Ncolae Grigorescu (1860).JPG,
Nicolae Grigorescu Nicolae Grigorescu (; 15 May 1838 – 21 July 1907) was one of the founders of modern Romanian painting. He is considered by Romanians the greatest Romanian painter, and one of the founders of modern Romanian art. He is most known for paintin ...
File:Luchian - Un zugrav.jpg,
Ștefan Luchian Ștefan Luchian (, last name also spelled Lukian; 1 February 1868 – 28 June 1916) was a Romanian painter, famous for his landscapes and still life works. Biography Early life Luchian was born in Ștefănești, a village of Botoșani County, ...


Golden Age

The first half of the 20th century is regarded by many as the golden age of Romanian culture, and it is the period when it reached its main level of international affirmation and a strong connection to European cultural trends. The most important artist who had a great influence on the world culture was the
sculptor Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. Sculpture is the three-dimensional art work which is physically presented in the dimensions of height, width and depth. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sc ...
Constantin BrâncuÈ™i Constantin BrâncuÈ™i (; February 19, 1876 â€“ March 16, 1957) was a Romanian sculptor, painter, and photographer who made his career in France. Considered one of the most influential sculptors of the 20th century and a pioneer of modernism ...
(1876–1957), a central figure of the modern movement and a pioneer of abstraction, an innovator of world sculpture by immersion in the primordial sources of folk creation. The relationship between traditional and Western European trends was a subject of heated polemics, and outstanding personalities sustained the debates. The playwright,
expressionist Expressionism is a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Northern Europe around the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, distorting it rad ...
poet, and philosopher
Lucian Blaga Lucian Blaga (; 9 May 1895 – 6 May 1961) was a Romanians, Romanian philosopher, poet, playwright, poetry translator and novelist. He is considered one of the greatest philosophers and poets of Romania, and a prominent philosopher of the twenti ...
can be cited as a member of the traditionalist group and the literary critic founder of the literary circle and cultural journal ''
Sburătorul ''Sburătorul'' was a Romanian modernist literary magazine and literary society, established in Bucharest in April 1919. Led by Eugen Lovinescu, the circle was instrumental in developing new trends and styles in Romanian literature, ranging f ...
'',
Eugen Lovinescu Eugen Lovinescu (; 31 October 1881 – 16 July 1943) was a Romanian modernist literary historian, literary critic, academic, and novelist, who in 1919 established the ''Sburătorul'' literary club. He was the father of Monica Lovinescu, and the ...
, represents the so-called Westernizing group, which sought to bring Romanian culture closer to Western European culture. Also,
George Călinescu George Călinescu (; 19 June 1899 – 12 March 1965) was a Romanian literary critic, historian, novelist, academician and journalist, and a writer of classicist and humanist tendencies. He is currently considered one of the most important Romani ...
was a more complex writer who, among different literary creations, produced the monumental ''"History of the Romanian literature, from its origins till present day"''. The beginning of the 20th century was also a prolific period for Romanian prose, with personalities such as the
novelist A novelist is an author or writer of novels, though often novelists also write in other genres of both fiction and non-fiction. Some novelists are professional novelists, thus make a living wage, living writing novels and other fiction, while other ...
Liviu Rebreanu Liviu Rebreanu (; November 27, 1885 – September 1, 1944) was a Romanian novelist, playwright, short story writer, and journalist. Life Born in Felsőilosva (now Târlișua, Bistrița-Năsăud County, Transylvania), then part of the King ...
, who described the struggles in the traditional society and the horrors of war,
Mihail Sadoveanu Mihail Sadoveanu (; occasionally referred to as Mihai Sadoveanu; 5 November 1880 â€“ 19 October 1961) was a Romanian novelist, short story writer, journalist and political figure, who twice served as acting President of Romania, head of st ...
, a writer of novels of epic proportions with inspiration from the medieval history of Moldavia, and
Camil Petrescu Camil Petrescu (; 9/21 April 1894 – 14 May 1957) was a Romanian playwright, novelist, philosopher and poet. He marked the end of the traditional novel era and laid the foundation of the modern novel era in Romania. He was a member of the Sbur ...
, a more modern writer distinguishing himself through his analytical prose writing. In
dramaturgy Dramaturgy is the study of dramatic composition and the representation of the main elements of drama on the stage. The role of a dramaturg in the field of modern dramaturgy is to help realize the multifaceted world of the play for a production u ...
, Mihail Sebastian was an influential writer, and as the number of theaters grew, also did the number of actors, Lucia Sturdza Bulandra being an actress representative of this period. Alongside the prominent poet George Topîrceanu, a poet of equal importance was
Tudor Arghezi Ion Nae Theodorescu (21 May 1880 – 14 July 1967) was a Romanian writer who wrote under the pen name Tudor Arghezi (. He is best known for his unique contribution to poetry and children's literature. Biography Early life He graduated from Sai ...
, who was the first to revolutionize poetry in the last 50 years. One should not neglect the poems of George Bacovia, a
symbolist Symbolism or symbolist may refer to: *Symbol, any object or sign that represents an idea Arts *Artistic symbol, an element of a literary, visual, or other work of art that represents an idea ** Color symbolism, the use of colors within various c ...
poet of neurosis, and despair and those of Ion Barbu, a brilliant mathematician who wrote a series of very successful cryptic poems.
Tristan Tzara Tristan Tzara (; ; ; born Samuel or Samy Rosenstock, also known as S. Samyro; – 25 December 1963) was a Romanian and French avant-garde poet, essayist and performance artist. Also active as a journalist, playwright, literary and art critic, c ...
and
Marcel Janco Marcel Janco (, ; common rendition of the Romanian language, Romanian name Marcel Hermann Iancu ; 24 May 1895 – 21 April 1984) was a Romanian and Israeli visual artist, architect and art theorist. He was the co-inventor of Dadaism and a leading ...
, founders of the
Dadaist Dada () or Dadaism was an anti-establishment art movement that developed in 1915 in the context of the Great War and the earlier anti-art movement. Early centers for dadaism included Zürich and Berlin. Within a few years, the movement had s ...
movement, were also of Romanian origin. Also during the golden age came the epoch of Romanian philosophy with such figures as Mircea Vulcănescu,
Dimitrie Gusti Dimitrie Gusti (; 13 February 1880 – 30 October 1955) was a Romanian sociologist, ethnologist, historian, and voluntarist philosopher; a professor at the University of Iași and the University of Bucharest, he served as Romania's Minister ...
, Alexandru Dragomir, and
Vasile Conta Vasile Conta (; ; November 15, 1845 – April 21, 1882) was a Romanian philosopher, poet, and politician. The son of a priest, he was born in Ghindăoani, a village in Bălțătești commune, Neamț County. He attended primary school in Tâ ...
. The period was dominated by the overwhelming personality of the historian and politician
Nicolae Iorga Nicolae Iorga (17 January 1871 – 27 November 1940) was a historian, politician, literary critic, memoirist, Albanologist, poet and playwright. Co-founder (in 1910) of the Democratic Nationalist Party (PND), he served as a member of Parliament ...
, who, during his lifetime, published over 1,250 books and wrote more than 25,000 articles. In music, the composers
George Enescu George Enescu (; – 4 May 1955), known in France as Georges Enesco, was a Romanians, Romanian composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher and statesman. He is regarded as one of the greatest musicians in Romanian history. Biography En ...
and Constantin Dimitrescu and the pianist
Dinu Lipatti Constantin "Dinu" Lipatti (; 2 December 1950) was a Romanian classical pianist and composer whose career was cut short by his death from effects related to Hodgkin's disease at age 33. He was elected posthumously to the Romanian Academy. He comp ...
became world-famous. The number of important Romanian painters also grew, and the most significant ones were:
Nicolae Tonitza Nicolae Tonitza (; April 13, 1886 – February 27, 1940) was a Romanian painter, Engraving, engraver, Lithography, lithographer, journalist and art critic. Drawing inspiration from Post-Impressionism and Expressionism, he had a major role in ...
,
Camil Ressu Camil Ressu (; 28 January 1880 – 1 April 1962) was a Romanian painter and academic, one of the most significant art figures of Romania. Biography Early life and career Born in Galați, Ressu came from an Aromanians, Aromanian family that mi ...
,
Francisc Șirato Francisc Şirato (15 August 1877 — 4 August 1953) was a Romanian painter, graphic artist, art critic, and designer. Alongside Nicolae Tonitza, Ștefan Dimitrescu, and Oscar Han, he was one of the ''Grupul celor patru'' ("Group of four"), some ...
, Ignat Bednarik,
Lucian Grigorescu Lucian Grigorescu (; 1 February 1894, Medgidia – 28 October 1965, Bucharest) was a Romanian post-impressionist painter. He graduated from the Mircea cel Bătrân High School in Constanța. In 1948, he was elected corresponding member of the R ...
, and
Theodor Pallady Theodor Pallady (; 11 April 1871 – 16 August 1956) was a Romanian painter. Biography Theodor Pallady was the son of Ioan Pallady and Maria Cantacuzino, the older sister of Romanian diplomat Neculai B. Cantacuzino. He was born in Iași, Roman ...
. In medicine, a great contribution to human society was the discovery of
insulin Insulin (, from Latin ''insula'', 'island') is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets encoded in humans by the insulin (''INS)'' gene. It is the main Anabolism, anabolic hormone of the body. It regulates the metabol ...
by the Romanian scientist
Nicolae Paulescu Nicolae Constantin Paulescu (; 30 October 1869 (O.S.) – 17 July 1931) was a Romanians, Romanian physiologist, professor of medicine, and politician, most famous for his work on diabetes, including patenting ''pancreine'' (a pancreatic extract ...
. Gheorghe Marinescu was an important
neurologist Neurology (from , "string, nerve" and the suffix -logia, "study of") is the branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the nervous system, which comprises the brain, the ...
and
Victor Babeș Victor Babeș (; 28 July 1854 in Vienna – 19 October 1926 in Bucharest) was a Romanian physician, bacteriologist, academician and professor. One of the founders of modern microbiology, Victor Babeș is author of one of the first treatises of ba ...
was one of the earliest bacteriologists. In mathematics,
Gheorghe Țițeica Gheorghe Țițeica (; 4 October 1873 – 5 February 1939) publishing as George or Georges Tzitzéica) was a Romanian mathematician who made important contributions in geometry. He is recognized as the founder of the Romanian school of differential ...
was one of Romania's greatest mathematicians, and also an important personality was the mathematician/poet Dan Barbilian. File:Georges Enesco 1930.jpg,
George Enescu George Enescu (; – 4 May 1955), known in France as Georges Enesco, was a Romanians, Romanian composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher and statesman. He is regarded as one of the greatest musicians in Romanian history. Biography En ...
File:Constantin Brancusi c.1905.jpg,
Constantin BrâncuÈ™i Constantin BrâncuÈ™i (; February 19, 1876 â€“ March 16, 1957) was a Romanian sculptor, painter, and photographer who made his career in France. Considered one of the most influential sculptors of the 20th century and a pioneer of modernism ...
File:Victor Babes.jpg,
Victor Babeș Victor Babeș (; 28 July 1854 in Vienna – 19 October 1926 in Bucharest) was a Romanian physician, bacteriologist, academician and professor. One of the founders of modern microbiology, Victor Babeș is author of one of the first treatises of ba ...
File:TonitzaTonitzacca1923.PNG,
Nicolae Tonitza Nicolae Tonitza (; April 13, 1886 – February 27, 1940) was a Romanian painter, Engraving, engraver, Lithography, lithographer, journalist and art critic. Drawing inspiration from Post-Impressionism and Expressionism, he had a major role in ...
File:Tudor Arghezi.jpg,
Tudor Arghezi Ion Nae Theodorescu (21 May 1880 – 14 July 1967) was a Romanian writer who wrote under the pen name Tudor Arghezi (. He is best known for his unique contribution to poetry and children's literature. Biography Early life He graduated from Sai ...
File:Gheorghe Țițeica.jpg,
Gheorghe Țițeica Gheorghe Țițeica (; 4 October 1873 – 5 February 1939) publishing as George or Georges Tzitzéica) was a Romanian mathematician who made important contributions in geometry. He is recognized as the founder of the Romanian school of differential ...


Post-war period

In Romania, the
communist regime A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state in which the totality of the power belongs to a party adhering to some form of Marxism–Leninism, a branch of the communist ideology. Marxism–Leninism was ...
imposed heavy censorship on almost all elements of life, and they used the cultural world as a means to better control the population. The freedom of expression was constantly restricted in various ways: the Sovietization period was an attempt at building up a new cultural identity on the basis of socialist realism and lending legitimacy to the new order by rejecting traditional values. Two currents appeared: one that glorified the regime and another that tried to avoid censorship. The first is probably of no lasting cultural value, but the second managed to create valuable works, successfully avoiding censorship and being very well received by the general public. From this period, the most outstanding personalities are those of the writer
Marin Preda Marin Preda (; 5 August 1922, Siliștea Gumești, Teleorman County, Kingdom of Romania – 16 May 1980, Mogoșoaia, Ilfov County], Socialist Republic of Romania) was a Romanian novelist, post-war writer and director of Cartea Românească p ...
, the poets Nichita Stănescu and Marin Sorescu, and the literary critics
Nicolae Manolescu Nicolae Manolescu (; 27 November 1939 – 23 March 2024) was a Romanian literary critic. Elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy in 1997, he was upgraded to titular member in 2013. Life and career Manolescu was born in Râmnicu ...
and Eugen Simion. Most dissidents who chose not to emigrate lived a life closely watched by the regime, either in "house arrest" or in "forced domicile"; some chose to retreat to remote monasteries. Most of their work was published after the 1989 Revolution. Among the most notable examples are the philosophers Constantin Noica,
Petre Țuțea Petre Țuțea (; 6 October 1902 – 3 December 1991) was a Romanian philosopher, journalist, and economist. Biography Early years and the Legionary Movement Petre Țuțea was born in the village of Boteni, Muscel County (now in Argeș ...
, and Nicolae Steinhardt. There was a chasm between the official, communist culture and genuine culture. On the one hand, against the authorities' intentions, the outstanding works were perceived as a realm of moral truths, and the significant representatives of genuine cultural achievement were held in very high esteem by the public opinion. On the other hand, the slogans disseminated nationwide through the forms of official culture helped spread simplistic views, which were relatively successful among some ranks of the population. The tension between these two directions can still be perceived at the level of society as a whole. File:Petre Țuțea.jpg,
Petre Țuțea Petre Țuțea (; 6 October 1902 – 3 December 1991) was a Romanian philosopher, journalist, and economist. Biography Early years and the Legionary Movement Petre Țuțea was born in the village of Boteni, Muscel County (now in Argeș ...
File:Constantin Noica 3.jpg, Constantin Noica File:Sorin Adam - Nichita Stanescu - portret.jpg, Nichita Stănescu File:Marin Preda1.jpg,
Marin Preda Marin Preda (; 5 August 1922, Siliștea Gumești, Teleorman County, Kingdom of Romania – 16 May 1980, Mogoșoaia, Ilfov County], Socialist Republic of Romania) was a Romanian novelist, post-war writer and director of Cartea Românească p ...
File:MarinSorescu.jpg, Marin Sorescu File:Mihail Sadoveanu.jpg,
Mihail Sadoveanu Mihail Sadoveanu (; occasionally referred to as Mihai Sadoveanu; 5 November 1880 â€“ 19 October 1961) was a Romanian novelist, short story writer, journalist and political figure, who twice served as acting President of Romania, head of st ...


Culture inside communist Romania

A strong editorial activity took place during the Communist regime. With the purpose of educating the large masses of peoples, a huge number of books were published. Large-scale editing houses such as ''Cartea Românească'', ''Editura Eminescu,'' and others appeared, which published huge collections of books, such as the ''Biblioteca pentru Toţi'' ("The Library for Everyone") with over 5,000 titles. Generally, a book was never published in an edition of less than 50,000 copies. Libraries appeared in every village, and almost all were kept up to date with the newest books published. Also, due to low prices, almost everyone could afford to have their own collection of books at home. The negative part was that all the books were heavily censored. Also, due to rationing in every aspect of life, the quality of the printing and the paper also was very low, and the books, therefore, degraded easily. During this period, there was a significant increase in the number of theatres, as they appeared even in the smallest towns. Many new establishments were built, and in the big cities they became important landmarks, such as the building of the National Theatre of Bucharest, situated right in the middle of the city, immediately adjacent to Romania's kilometre zero. In the smaller towns, there existed the so-called "Worker's Theatre", a semi-professional institution. Partly due to the lack of other entertainment venues, the theatre was highly popular, and the number of actors increased. All of the theatres had a stable, state-funded budget. Again, however, the drawback was the heavy control imposed on them by the regime: censorship was ever-present, and only ideologically-accepted plays were allowed. More progressive theatres managed to survive in some remote cities that became favorite destinations for young actors, but they generally had only a local audience. Cinemas evolved the same way as the theatres; sometimes, the same establishment served both purposes. Movies were very popular, and from the 1960s, foreign films started becoming quite widespread.
Western Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...
films, when shown, were heavily censored: entire sections were cut, and dialogue was translated only using ideologically accepted words. Domestic or "friendly" foreign productions constituted the bulk of films in cinemas. During this period, cinematography started to develop in Romania, and the first successful short films were made based on Caragiale's plays. Financed by the government, during the 1960s, a whole industry developed at
Buftea Buftea () is a town in Ilfov County, Muntenia, Romania, located north-west of Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Rom ...
, a town close to
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
, and some films, especially gangster, Western-genre, and historical movies, were very well received by the public. The most prolific director was
Sergiu Nicolaescu Sergiu Florin Nicolaescu (; 13 April 1930 – 3 January 2013) was a Romanian people, Romanian film director, actor and politician. He was best known for his historical films, such as ''Michael the Brave (film), Mihai Viteazul'' (1970, released in ...
, and probably the most-acclaimed actor from that period was Amza Pellea.


Romanians in exile

A consequence of the communist attitude towards the bourgeoisie elites in general, was the creation, for the first time in Romania's history, of a
diaspora A diaspora ( ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of birth, place of origin. The word is used in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently resi ...
. Three individuals emerged as the most important Romanians abroad: playwright Eugène Ionesco, Eugen Ionescu (1909–1994) (who became known in France as Eugène Ionesco), creator of the Theatre of the Absurd and eventual member of the Académie française; religious historian and writer Mircea Eliade (1907–1986); and the essayist and philosopher Emil Cioran (1911–1996), the greatest French-writing master of style after Pascal. Fellow Romanian Ioan P. Culianu, Ioan Petre Culianu continued Eliade's work with great success, in the United States. Another member of the diaspora who distinguished himself was the philosopher and logician Stephane Lupasco. The communist rule in Romania, unlike most of the other countries of the Eastern bloc, permanently repudiated the Romanians who had left their country and labeled them as traitors to the Fatherland. So, neither Mircea Eliade, nor Eugène Ionesco, nor Emil Cioran, whose works would be published in this country sporadically after 1960, could see their native land again. It was only after 1989 that the process of regaining the values of the diaspora and of reintegrating its personalities into this country's culture could be started seriously, a process marked in its turn by tension and disagreements. Well-known Romanian musicians outside of Romania during this period include conductors Sergiu Celibidache—the main conductor at the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra and later of Munich Philharmonic Orchestra—and Constantin Silvestri, main conductor at the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra. Gheorghe Zamfir was a virtuoso of the pan pipes and made this instrument known to a modern worldwide audience, and was also a composer or interpreter for a great number of movies. Composer and architect Iannis Xenakis was born in Romania and spent his childhood there. George Emil Palade, a Cell biology, cell biologist and a teacher, became the first Romanian to receive the Nobel Prize, winning the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for ''describing the structure and function of organelles in cells''. Elie Wiesel, who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986, was born in the Romanian town of Sighetu MarmaÅ£iei. File:Mircea Eliade young.jpg, Mircea Eliade File:Eugene Ionesco 01.jpg, Eugen Ionescu File:Cioran in Romania.jpg, Emil Cioran File:Neagu Djuvara.JPG, Neagu Djuvara File:Celibidache At Curtis Single.jpg, Sergiu Celibidache File:StephaneLupasco.jpg, Stéphane Lupasco


Evolutions after 1989

The fall of soviet-style communism in 1989 elated the cultural world, but the experience hasn't been an easy one due to problems in the transition period and the adoption of a free market economy. The discontinuation of state and political control of culture brought about the long dreamt freedom of expression, but, at the same time, the state subsidies also stopped, and Romania's culture was seriously affected by the side-effects of the incipient, still very imperfect, free-market economy and by inadequate material resources. Culture has had to cope with a variety of problems, one of them being a shift in people's interest towards other areas such as the press and television. The search for a new cultural policy, relying on decentralization, seems to prevail now. People speak about a crisis of culture in this country, but if there is a crisis of culture, it is only at an institutional level. After the Romanian Revolution of 1989, fall of communism in 1989, there was an almost immediate explosion of publication of books previously censored by the regime. Books were published in huge numbers per edition, sales were high, and a great number of publishing houses appeared. However, this soon reached a saturation point, and publishing houses began to decline due to a combination of bad management, a rapid drop in sales, and the absence of subsidies. Many closed after publishing only a few titles; some changed their profile and started printing commercial literature – mainly translations – and the state-owned publishers entered a "state of lethargy". The latter survived due to state financing, but their publishing activity diminished. Despite this, some publishing houses managed to survive and develop by implementing market-oriented policies, and by improving the quality and overall appearance of the books they published. Among the most notable contemporary Romanian publishers are Humanitas publishing house, Humanitas in Bucharest, Polirom in Iași, and Teora, which specializes in technical topics and dictionaries. Some publishing houses developed their own chains or bookstores, and also other new, privately owned bookstore chains opened, replacing the old state-owned ones. Culturally oriented newsprint periodicals followed a similar trajectory of boom and bust. A few have survived and managed to raise their quality and to maintain a critical spirit despite the hardships they encountered. ''Dilema Veche'' (''Old Dilemma'') and ''Revista 22'' (''Magazine 22'') remain respected forces in Romanian culture, with ''Observator Cultural'' a lesser, but also respected, weekly paper. Also, a state-financed radio (''Radio România Cultural'') and a television channel (''TVR Cultural'') with a cultural programme exist, but they are not highly popular. Many new young writers appeared, but due to financial constraints, only those who have gained a strong reputation could get the financial backing to publish their works. The Writers' Union of Romania, Writers's Union, which should, in principle, support these writers' efforts, hasn't undergone much change since 1989, and there is much controversy surrounding its activity and purpose. The most successful writers, like Mircea Cărtărescu, Gabriela Adamesteanu, Mircea Dinescu, Ana Blandiana, Doina Rusti, Doina Ruști, Radu Aldulescu (novelist), Radu Aldulescu, Claudiu Komartin etc Horia-Roman Patapievici, Andrei Pleşu, Gabriel Liiceanu, and Herta Müller, are respected personalities in Romanian life, but they have to devote some of their would-be writing time to other activities, mainly journalism. The ties with the Romanian diaspora are now very strong, and even foreign-language Romanian writers like Andrei Codrescu (who now writes primarily in English) are very popular. File:Mircea cartarescu by cosmin bumbutz.jpg, Mircea Cărtărescu File:Horia-Roman Patapievici (2).jpg, Horia-Roman Patapievici File:Gabriel Liiceanu (2).jpg, Gabriel Liiceanu File:Andrei Pleșu (1).jpg, Andrei Pleșu File:AndreiCodrescu.jpg, Andrei Codrescu File:Müller, Herta.IMG 9379 cropped.JPG, Herta Müller Romanian theatre also suffered from economic hardships, and its popularity decreased drastically due to the increased popularity of television and other entertainment channels. Some theatres survived due to their prestige (and some continued subsidies); others survived through good management, investing in themselves, and earning a steady audience through the high quality of their productions. Experimental or independent theatres appeared and are quite popular in university cities. Uniter – ''The Romanian Theatres Association'' – gives yearly awards to the best performances. Some of the most critically acclaimed directors in contemporary Romania are Andrei Serban, Andrei Șerban, Silviu Purcărete, Mihai Maniutiu, Mihai Măniuțiu, Gábor Tompa, Alexandru Dabija, Victor Ioan Frunză, Radu Afrim and Alexandru Darie. Also, among the most appreciated actors, both from the new and old generation, one can name Ștefan Iordache, Victor Rebengiuc, Maia Morgenstern, Marcel Iureș, Horațiu Mălăele, Ion Caramitru, Mircea Diaconu, Marius Chivu and others. File:Victor Rebengiuc1.jpg, Victor Rebengiuc File:Marcel Iures.png, Marcel Iureș File:Cristian Mungiu Cannes 2012.jpg, Cristian Mungiu File:Tudor Giurgiu 03.jpg, Tudor Giurgiu File:MJK 16773 Adina Pintilie (Touch Me Not) crop.jpg, Adina Pintilie File:Calin Peter Netzer.jpg, Călin Peter Netzer Due to the lack of funds, Romanian film-making suffered heavily in the 1990s; even now, as of 2005, a lot of controversy surrounds state aid for movies. Well-known directors such as Dan Piţa and Lucian Pintilie have had a certain degree of continued success, and younger directors such as Cristian Mungiu, Nae Caranfil, Cristi Puiu, Corneliu Porumboiu, Radu Jude and Radu Muntean have become highly respected. Caranfil's film ''Filantropica'' and Puiu's ''The Death of Mr. Lazarescu'' were extremely well received and gained awards at international festivals in Paris and Cannes Film Festival, Cannes. Besides domestic production, Romania became a favorite destination for international producers due to the low cost of filming there, and big investments have been made in large studios. The number of cultural events held yearly in Romania has increased over the past few years. Some sporadic events like the "2005 Bucharest CowParade" have been well received, and yearly events and festivals have continually attracted interest. Medieval festivals held in cities in Transylvania, which combine street theatre with music and battle reenactments to create a very lively atmosphere, are some of the most popular events. In theatre, a yearly National Festival takes place, and one of the most important international theatre festivals is ''"The Sibiu Theatre Festival",'' while in filmmaking, the ''"TIFF" Film Festival'' in Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, the ''"Dakino" Film Festival'' in
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
and the ''"Anonimul" Film Festival'' in the Danube Delta have an ever-stronger international presence. In music, the most important event is the ''"George Enescu" Classical Music Festival,'' but festivals like ''"Jeunesses Musicales" International Festival'' and Jazz festivals in
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , , Hungarian: ''Nagyszeben'', , Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'' or ''Hermestatt'') is a city in central Romania, situated in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles th ...
, Cluj and Bucharest are also appreciated. An important event took place in 2007 when the city of Sibiu was, along with Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, the European Capital of Culture.


Culture

Folklore in Romania Southern traditional Romanian costumes from Bucharest, late 19th century The most striking thing about Romanian culture is the strong folk traditions which have survived to this day due to the rural character of the Romanian communities, which has resulted in an exceptionally vital and creative traditional culture. Romania's rich folk traditions have been nourished by many sources, some of which predate the Ancient Rome, Roman occupation. Traditional folk arts include wood carving, Pottery, ceramics, weaving, and embroidery of costumes, household decorations, dance, and richly varied folk music. Ethnographers have tried to collect in the last two centuries as many elements as possible: the Museum of the Romanian Peasant and the Romanian Academy are currently the main institutions which systematically organize the data and continue the research of these elements. The wood used to be the main construction material, and heavily ornamented wooden objects were common in old houses. In MaramureÈ™ region, MaramureÈ™, wood was used to create impressive structures such as churches or gates; in Dobruja, windmills were made of wood, and in mountainous regions, hardwood was used even for covering the roof. To preserve traditional houses, many village museums have been created in the last century throughout Romania, such as the Village Museum in
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
, the ASTRA National Museum Complex, Traditional Popular Civilization ASTRA Museum in
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , , Hungarian: ''Nagyszeben'', , Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'' or ''Hermestatt'') is a city in central Romania, situated in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles th ...
, or the Oltenian Village Museum in Râmnicu Vâlcea. Linen was the most common material for clothing, combined with wool during the winter or colder periods.These clothes of linen and wool would then be embroidered with traditional motifs that vary from region to region. The Romanian dress, Romanian traditional dress is still worn and created in this fashion around the rural areas of the country. Black is the most common color used, but red and blue are predominant in certain areas. Traditionally, men wore a white shirt and pants with a wide leather belt, usually over the shirt, and a vest sometimes made of leather and embroidered. They wore either boots or simple sandals made of leather called ''Opanak, opinci,'' and they often wore a hat differing in design from region to region. Women also wore a white skirt and a shirt with a vest. They also traditionally wore an apron which had also been embroidered, and a variety of different headscarfs; on special occasions, they wore more elaborate outfits. Music and dance represent a lively part of the Romanian folklore, and there are a great variety of musical genres and dances. Party music is very lively and shows both Balkan and Hungary, Hungarian influences. Sentimental music, however, is the most valued, and Romanians consider their ''doina'' (a sad song either about one's home or about love, composed like an epic ballad) unique in the world. Maria Tănase, Maria Lătărețu, Maria Ciobanu, and Ileana Sararoiu are considered to be some of the greatest Romanian folk singers, and today Grigore Leșe and Taraful Haiducilor are two of the most significant representatives of such styles. The dances are lively and are practiced throughout Romania by a large number of professional and amateur groups, thus keeping the tradition alive; Hora (dance), Hora is one of the most popular peasant group dances, but more complex dances such as the ritual dance ''Călușari, Căluș'', danced originally by the Călușari, have been declared by UNESCO to be "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritages of Humanity".


Mythology

Romanians have had, from time immemorial, a myriad of customs, tales, and poems about love, faith, kings, princesses, and witches. The ethnologists, poets, writers, and historians have tried in recent centuries to collect and to preserve tales, poems, ballads and have tried to describe as well as possible the customs and habits related to different events and times of the year. Customs related to certain times of year are the ''colinde'', Romanian Christmas carols, ''sorcova'' on New Year's Eve, or the ''Mărțișor'' custom on the first day of March, marking the spring. Other customs are presumably of pre-Christian Paganism, pagan origin, like the ''Paparuda'' rain enchanting custom in the summer, or the masked folk theatre or ''Ursul'' (the bear) and ''Capra'' (the goat) in winter. Perhaps the most successful collector of folk tales was the novelist and storyteller Ion Creangă, who in very picturesque language, shaped into their now-classic form stories like ''Harap Alb'' ("The White Moor") or ''Fata babei și fata moșului'' (roughly, "The old woman's daughter and the old man's daughter"). Also, the poet
Vasile Alecsandri Vasile Alecsandri (; 21 July 182122 August 1890) was a Romanian patriot, poet, dramatist, politician and diplomat. He was one of the key figures during the 1848 revolutions in Moldavia and Wallachia. He fought for the unification of the Roma ...
published the most successful version of the ballad ''Miorița'' (''The Little Ewe''), a sad, philosophical poem, centered on a simple action: the plot by two shepherds to kill a third shepherd because they envied his wealth. Another prolific editor of folk tales was Petre Ispirescu, who, in the 19th century, published an impressive number of volumes containing a large number of short novels and tales from popular mythology. They are centered on popular characters like the prince ''Făt-Frumos'' (the Romanian "Prince Charming"), the princess Ileana Cosânzeana, the villain or monster ''Zmeu'' or ''Căpcăun'', the dragon ''Balaur,'' or fantastic superbeings like the good ''Zână'' and the evil ''Muma Pădurii''.


Spirituality and religion

Romanian spirituality is greatly influenced by its strong connections with the Eastern Christianity, Eastern Christian world. The modern national mythology contends Romanians are ''An island of Latinity in a Slavic sea'' and ''The only Eastern Orthodox Church, Orthodox Christian Latin people''. There are only a few Romanian Catholics (of both the Roman and Greek rites) and a small number of Protestants, the vast majority of Romanians being Romanian Orthodox Church, Romanian Orthodox (over 81%). Despite the diminishing importance of the church in recent generations, it remains the most trusted institution in Romania. Church attendance is high in rural communities and among the elders in the cities. Also, despite accusations of collaborationism with the
communist regime A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state in which the totality of the power belongs to a party adhering to some form of Marxism–Leninism, a branch of the communist ideology. Marxism–Leninism was ...
, which continue to plague the Romanian Church, some clerics such as Dumitru Stăniloae and Richard Wurmbrand openly protested against political interventions in religious business. There are also some Islam in Romania, Muslims living in the country. Romanian Orthodox monasteries and churches exist throughout Romania, but traditionally, few are constructed on a monumental scale. A great number of wooden churches are still intact in the
Carpathian Mountains The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe and Southeast Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Ural Mountains, Urals at and the Scandinav ...
villages, but by far, the most impressive is the Wooden Churches of MaramureÈ™, which push wood building technique to its limits. Byzantine influences can be found in most Romanian church buildings, but domestic styles have evolved in different periods of time and in different regions. In
Moldavia Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
, a particular style was used in the construction of the monasteries, of which some of the most important are the Painted churches of northern Moldavia, churches of northern Moldavia – UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such as those of Moldovița, Putna, Suceava, Putna, Sucevița, or Voroneț. In
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
, Curtea de Argeș Cathedral was built in a Byzantine art, Byzantine style with Moorish influences, and a great number of churches show Greek influences, especially those built in the 18th century, such as Stavropoleos Monastery, Stavropoleos Church in central Bucharest. Romania also evolved the distinctive Constantin Brâncoveanu, Brâncovenesc style: the monasteries of Snagov Monastery, Snagov and of Sâmbăta de Sus in Transylvania are classic examples. Beyond formal religious practice, Romanian spirituality often blends Orthodox Christian belief with folk traditions, ancestral customs, and seasonal rituals. In many rural communities, faith is closely tied to the agricultural calendar and family life, with blessings, icons, and prayers integrated into daily routines. Spiritual observances such as the blessing of homes at Epiphany or lighting candles for the dead at Easter remain widespread, reflecting a deep-rooted, lived religiosity.


Cuisine

The cuisine of Romania has the same influences as the rest of Romanian culture; from Roman times, there still exists the simple pie called, in
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
, ''plăcintă'' and keeping the initial meaning of the Latin word ''placenta''. The Turks brought meatballs (fried ''mititei'' or ''Ciorbă de perişoare, perişoare'' in a soup called ''ciorbă''); from the Greeks, there is the ''Moussaka, musaca'' (moussaka) and ''covrigi'' (hot pretzels); from the Bulgarians, a wide variety of vegetable dishes like ''zacuscă''; from the Austrians there is the ''Wiener schnitzel, şniţel'' (schnitzel); from the Hungarians, their ornate pastries; and the list could go on. Without a doubt, one of the most popular dishes in Romania, and perhaps can be called the national dish, is ''Sarma (food), Sarmale'', or ''Sarma'' in other cultures of the Balkans, and the Caucasus; a mixture of pork, beef, and lamb, or just plain pork, with onions and rice, wrapped in semi-sour cabbage or grape leaves, and then placed usually in a porcelain pot with tomato paste and pork cuts. This dish is then slow-cooked, and commonly served with cornmeal (mămăligă, which is a type of polenta). One of the most common meals is the ''mămăligă'', a cornmeal mush, for a long time considered the "poor man's meal" (''N-are nici o mămăligă pe masă'' – "He hasn't even a mămăligă on the table"), but it has become very appreciated in recent times. Pork is the main meat used in Romanian cuisine, but also beef is consumed and a good lamb or fish dish is never to be refused. In conjunction with special events or periods, different recipes are prepared. During Christmas, nearly every family slaughters a pig and cooks it using a wide variety of traditional recipes like ''cârnați'' – a type of long sausage with meat; ''caltaboși'' – sausages made with liver and other internal organs; ''piftie'' – a jelly made from parts like the feet, head and ears; ''tochitură'' (a kind of stew) – served along with mămăligă and wine ("so that the pork can swim"); and ''tobă'' (head cheese). The meal is sweetened with the traditional ''cozonac'' (sweet bread with nuts, poppy seeds or lokum – ''rahat'' in Romanian, known in English as Turkish delight). Lamb and mutton, Lamb is traditional for Easter; the main dishes are ''borș de miel'' (lamb sour soup), roast lamb, and ''drob'' – a cooked mix of offal, meat and fresh vegetables, which is quite similar to Scottish haggis, served with ''pască'' (a pie made with cottage cheese) as a sweetener. Wine is the main drink and has been a tradition for over three millennia. Romania is currently the world's ninth-largest wine producer, and exports have increased in recent years. A wide variety of domestic (Grasă de Cotnari, Grasă, Tămâioasă Românească, Tămâioasă) and worldwide (Italian Riesling, Merlot, Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Muscat Ottonel) varieties are produced. Romania is the world's second-largest grower of plums, and almost all of those plums become either the famous ''țuică'' (a once-refined plum brandy) or ''palincă'' (twice-or-more-refined plum brandy). Beer is also highly appreciated, generally Pilsener, blonde pilsener beer, after the German style. A great number of proverbs and sayings have developed around the activity of eating. From the innocent child's thank you: ''Săru-mâna pentru masă, c-a fost bună şi gustoasă, și bucătăreasa frumoasa'' ("Thank you for the meal, it was good and tasty, and the cook was beautiful"), to the more philosophical ''Mulțumescu-ți ție Doamne, c-am mâncat și iar mi-e foame'' ("Thank you Lord, for I have eaten, but I am hungry again"), ''Dragostea trece prin stomac'' ("Love passes through the stomach"), the simple ''Pofta vine mâncănd'' ("Appetite comes while eating"), the sarcastic ''Porcul mănâncă orice, dar se-ngrașă pentru alții'' ("The pig would eat anything but it gets fat for others"), or the expression of total fulfillment, ''Mâncat bine, băut bine, dimineața sculat mort'' ("Ate well, drank well, in the morning woke up dead").


Romanian script

During the 16th century, Romanian first appeared in writing, usually in religious texts and other written documents. A letter dating from 1521, from Neacșu of Câmpulung to the mayor of Brașov, is considered to be the earliest known text written in Romanian. The letter was written in a script which was used mainly in Wallachia and Moldavia until the year 1859. This script was a version of the Old Church Slavonic alphabet, a version of the Cyrillic alphabet. A version of the Cyrillic alphabet was used in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic until 1991, when they switched to the Romanian version of the Latin alphabet.


Contribution of the minorities

Minorities have made a major cultural contribution to Romania. Influences came from, most notably, minority groups such as Germans of Romania, Germans, Greeks in Romania, Greeks, Italians in Romania, Italians, and Hungarians in Romania, Hungarians. The Székelys, Székely and the Transylvanian Saxons, Saxons living in Transylvania, Hungarians in the Partium and Banat regions, and the Jasz people and Csángós, Csángos in Western Moldavia, made many important architectural contributions to the region, including numerous churches, fortifications, and town centers. Also, they figured in some landmarks in the development of ethnic Romanian culture: the first letter written in Romanian was addressed to the mayor of Kronstadt (Romanian: Brașov), and the first book printed in Romanian was in Hermannstadt (Romanian:
Sibiu Sibiu ( , , , Hungarian: ''Nagyszeben'', , Transylvanian Saxon: ''Härmeschtat'' or ''Hermestatt'') is a city in central Romania, situated in the historical region of Transylvania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles th ...
). Romania was once also the cradle of Yiddish theatre, and to this day, Bucharest is home to a State Jewish Theater (Romania), State Jewish Theater, despite the small number of History of the Jews in Romania, Jews remaining in the country.


Architecture and engineering

In the technical domain, one can note the achievements in the field of aviation made by Traian Vuia, Aurel Vlaicu, Aurel Persu, and Henri Coandă and also the works of George Constantinescu in the fields of engineering and Theory of sonics, sonics. Also, many achievements have been made in the architectural and engineering domain; thus,
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
became known as ''the small Paris''. The longest bridge in Europe was constructed by Anghel Saligny, linking Dobruja with the rest of Romania; the Peleș Castle became one of the most beautiful and modern castles in Europe. File:Sanctuarele de andezit.JPG, Ancient Dacian ruins at Sarmizegetusa Regia File:Southern side of the Mogosoaia Palace at sunset.jpg, Mogoșoaia Palace, view from the garden File:Ateneul Roman.jpg, Romanian Athenaeum File:Peles-Castle-Sinaia-Romania.jpg, Peleș Castle File:Podul Regele Carol I.jpg, King Carol I bridge File:A Vlaicu III 03.png, Early airplane model – the A Vlaicu III


Media and television


Music

Folk music is the oldest form of Romanian musical creation, characterized by great vitality; it is the defining source of the cultured musical creation, both religious and lay. Conservation of Romanian folk music has been aided by a large and enduring audience, and by numerous performers who helped propagate and further develop the folk sound. Two of them, Vasile Pandelescu, and Dumnitru Zamfira are some of the most famous examples of Romanian folk musicians. Before the major incorporation of more modern instruments that found their way into Romanian folk music, older instruments such as the Tobă (double-headed drum, also known as the Tabul or Davul), Surlă (also known as the Zurna in other parts of the Balkans), Caval (ancient shepherd's pipe), Cobza (an ancient instrument related to the Arabic Oud), Vioară (violin), Cimpoi (Balkan bagpipe), and the Tamburină (tambourine, more commonly used during the times under Phanariote and Ottoman influence), were also commonly used in folk music before the introduction on some slightly more modern elements such as the widely used accordion, and clarinet. Folk music, often is accentuated with clapping, yells of tongue rolling, shouts, and whistles. The religious musical creation, born under the influence of Byzantine music adjusted to the intonations of the local folk music, saw a period of glory between the 15th-17th centuries, when reputed schools of liturgical music developed within Romanian monasteries. Russian and Western influences brought about the introduction of polyphony in religious music in the 18th century, a genre developed by a series of Romanian composers in the 19th and 20th centuries.


See also

* Languages of Romania * Literature of Romania * Architecture of Romania * Cinema of Romania * Famous Romanian people * Romanian humour * Byzantium after Byzantium, a cultural movement which sprung during the medieval Romanian history. * Sport in Romania * Culture of Moldova


References


External links

Sibiu International Theatre Festival: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VSfSH16tFXU
cIMeC – The Institute For Cultural Memory
a key Romanian cultural institution.

on itcnet.ro * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150821141931/http://brancusi.com/bio.html Constantin Brâncuși biographical notes] on brancusi.com
Cultural aspects
an extensive site on ici.ro about Romanian culture.
Official Romanian Travel and Tourism Information website

Sibiul.ro
an extensive site about Sibiu (in Romanian)
Onlinegallery.ro
News, events, venues and extensive coverage of Romanian cultural acts * Manuela Preoteasa

("Television in Romania – domination by entertainment and non-news"), 30 November 2005, in a mix of Romanian and English.
Romanian spirituality
(mostly in Romanian, some portions translated into English)

("The ''calus'' dance in the list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritages of Humanity") (in Romanian)

(in Romanian)
Romanian recipes

SOS Romania News





Lost Trails web site has free downloads of Romanian folk music and Photography of many Romanian villages

Romania – cultural and regional differences

Rolandia
– Travel agency that blogs about Romania's culture and traditions {{Culture of Europe Culture of Romania,