HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Robert Ridgway (July 2, 1850 – March 25, 1929) was an American
ornithologist Ornithology, from Ancient Greek ὄρνις (''órnis''), meaning "bird", and -logy from λόγος (''lógos''), meaning "study", is a branch of zoology dedicated to the study of birds. Several aspects of ornithology differ from related discip ...
specializing in
systematics Systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees (synonyms: phylogenetic trees, phylogenies). Phy ...
. He was appointed in 1880 by
Spencer Fullerton Baird Spencer Fullerton Baird (; February 3, 1823 – August 19, 1887) was an American naturalist, ornithologist, ichthyologist, Herpetology, herpetologist, and museum curator. Baird was the first curator to be named at the Smithsonian Institution. He ...
, secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums, Education center, education and Research institute, research centers, created by the Federal government of the United States, U.S. government "for the increase a ...
, to be the first full-time curator of birds at the
United States National Museum The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums, Education center, education and Research institute, research centers, created by the Federal government of the United States, U.S. government "for the increase a ...
, a title he held until his death. In 1883, he helped found the
American Ornithologists' Union The American Ornithological Society (AOS) is an ornithological organization based in the United States. The society was formed in October 2016 by the merger of the American Ornithologists' Union (AOU) and the Cooper Ornithological Society. Its ...
, where he served as officer and journal editor. Ridgway was an outstanding descriptive
taxonomist In biology, taxonomy () is the science, scientific study of naming, defining (Circumscription (taxonomy), circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxon, taxa (si ...
, capping his life work with ''The Birds of North and Middle America'' (eight volumes, 1901–1919). In his lifetime, he was unmatched in the number of North American bird species that he described for science. As
technical illustrator Technical illustration is illustration meant to visually communicate information of a technical nature. Technical illustrations can be components of technical drawings or diagrams. Technical illustrations in general aim "to generate expressive i ...
, Ridgway used his own paintings and outline drawings to complement his writing. He also published two books that systematized color names for describing birds, ''A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists'' (1886) and ''Color Standards and Color Nomenclature'' (1912). Ornithologists all over the world continue to cite Ridgway's color studies and books.


Biography


Early life and family

Ridgway was born in
Mount Carmel, Illinois Mount Carmel is a city in and the county seat of Wabash County, Illinois, United States. At the time of the 2020 census, the population was 7,015, and it is the largest city in the county. The next largest town in Wabash County is Allendale, ...
to David and Henrietta (née Reed) Ridgway. He was the oldest of ten children. He was educated at common schools in his native town, where he showed a special fondness for
natural history Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is cal ...
. This interest to explore nature, both shooting with a gun given to him by his father, as well as drawing from life, was encouraged by his parents, his uncle William, and his aunt Fannie Gunn. In 1871 he met Julia Evelyn Perkins, the daughter of one of the engravers for ''The History of North American Birds.'' Ridgway's courtship of the girl who became known as "Evvie" lasted until she reached the age of eighteen, and they were married on October 12, 1875.


Ornithological training and the King expedition

In 1864, at the age of thirteen, the young Ridgway wrote to the Commissioner of Patents, seeking advice on the identification of a bird he had seen. He enclosed a full-sized color drawing of what turned out to be a pair of
purple finch The purple finch (''Haemorhous purpureus'') is a bird in the finch family, Fringillidae. It breeds in the northern United States, southern Canada, and the west coast of North America. Taxonomy The purple finch was formally described in 1789 by ...
es. His letter eventually was referred to
Spencer Fullerton Baird Spencer Fullerton Baird (; February 3, 1823 – August 19, 1887) was an American naturalist, ornithologist, ichthyologist, Herpetology, herpetologist, and museum curator. Baird was the first curator to be named at the Smithsonian Institution. He ...
of the
Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums, Education center, education and Research institute, research centers, created by the Federal government of the United States, U.S. government "for the increase a ...
. Baird replied, identifying the bird and praising the boy's artistic abilities, yet cautioning him to learn and use the scientific names of birds in further correspondence. The mentor and protégé continued their exchange of letters, which led to Ridgway's appointment, in the spring of 1867, as the naturalist on
Clarence King Clarence Rivers King (January 6, 1842 – December 24, 1901) was an American geologist, mountaineer, and author. He was the first director of the United States Geological Survey from 1879 to 1881. Nominated by Republican President Rutherford B. ...
's Survey of the 40th Parallel. After a brief, intensive stint of training in Washington, where he learned to prepare study skins, Ridgway joined the expedition in May. Starting from
Sacramento Sacramento ( or ; ; ) is the capital city of the U.S. state of California and the seat of Sacramento County. Located at the confluence of the Sacramento and American Rivers in Northern California's Sacramento Valley, Sacramento's 2020 p ...
,
California California () is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States that lies on the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. It borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and shares Mexico–United States border, an ...
, the team explored parts of
Nevada Nevada ( ; ) is a landlocked state in the Western United States. It borders Oregon to the northwest, Idaho to the northeast, California to the west, Arizona to the southeast, and Utah to the east. Nevada is the seventh-most extensive, th ...
,
Utah Territory The Territory of Utah was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from September 9, 1850, until January 4, 1896, when the final extent of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Utah, the 45th st ...
, and
Idaho Territory The Territory of Idaho was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from March 3, 1863, until July 3, 1890, when the final extent of the territory was admitted to the Union as Idaho. History 1860s The territory ...
. A highlight of the trip was a stop at Nevada's Pyramid Lake. In the fall of 1868, the members of the team were reduced for funding reasons, but Ridgway returned in 1869 for more work in Utah. In an undertaking that lasted nearly two years, Ridgway collected 1,522 bird-related specimens (753 nests and eggs and 769 skins) and served as a key member on one of the four great surveys of the American West. He observed 262 species, most of these on the western slope of the
Sierra Nevada The Sierra Nevada ( ) is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Great Basin. The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California, although the Carson Range spur lies primari ...
. He had written most of his portion of King's report by 1872, but the "Ornithology" section was not published until 1877.


The Washington years

Upon his return to Washington, Ridgway illustrated and wrote for Baird and Thomas M. Brewer's ''History of North American Birds'' project. He formally joined the Smithsonian in 1874, under the supervision of curator
George Brown Goode George Brown Goode (February 13, 1851 – September 6, 1896), was an American ichthyologist and museum administrator. Early life and family George Brown Goode was born February 13, 1851, in New Albany, Indiana, to Francis Collier Goode and Sarah ...
. In 1880 he received the job title of curator (variously, of ornithology or of the department of birds); he was titled Curator of Birds from 1886 until his death. Working with the institution's collection of approximately fifty thousand bird skins, Ridgway devoted himself to unraveling the taxonomic relationships among North American bird species. As well, he continued his field work to collect new specimens, making several trips to his home state of
Illinois Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. It borders on Lake Michigan to its northeast, the Mississippi River to its west, and the Wabash River, Wabash and Ohio River, Ohio rivers to its ...
,
Florida Florida ( ; ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders the Gulf of Mexico to the west, Alabama to the northwest, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the north, the Atlantic ...
, other states of the U.S., and
Costa Rica Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica, is a country in Central America. It borders Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the northeast, Panama to the southeast, and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, as well as Maritime bo ...
. The Smithsonian exchanged study skins with other museums, either by donation or loan, and provided material and publications to collectors such as José Castulo Zeledón of the Costa Rican National Museum in exchange for specimens. Ridgway was articulate and literate, and served as the Smithsonian's mouthpiece and representative for many years in the study of birds. He welcomed visits to the museum from colleagues and the general public alike, and would give tours. One of his responsibilities involved assembling public exhibits. In the interest of accessibility, he made books available for browsing and displayed examples of birds described in popular natural histories. As well, he showed birds from well-known poetry, species like the
nightingale The common nightingale, rufous nightingale or simply nightingale (''Luscinia megarhynchos''), is a small passerine bird which is best known for its powerful and beautiful song. It was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family Turdidae, ...
that are not found in North America. Returning the favor that Baird had paid him, he responded to letters from the public to identify birds and provided artist's materials to a painter in California. Nevertheless, friends and colleagues described him as almost painfully shy, and he generally shirked publicity and the limelight. Among Ridgway's colleagues at the Smithsonian was
Pierre Louis Jouy Pierre Louis Jouy (February 8, 1856, New York City – March 22, 1894, Tucson, Arizona) was an American ornithologist, naturalist, and ethnographer. He was the first American ornithologist to study the birds of Korea and, during his lifetime, beca ...
, who provided an important collection of Asian birds in 1883.
Charles Wallace Richmond Charles Wallace Richmond (December 31, 1868 – May 19, 1932) was an American ornithologist. He is best remembered for a compilation of the Latin names of birds that is called the Richmond Index. Life and work He was born in Kenosha, Wisconsin a ...
joined the institution in 1893 (at first, as a night watchman) and was soon tasked by Ridgway with writing reviews and other short pieces. During
Samuel Pierpont Langley Samuel Pierpont Langley (August 22, 1834 – February 27, 1906) was an American aviation pioneer, astronomer and physicist who invented the bolometer. He was the third secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and a professor of astronomy a ...
's tenure as Secretary, Ridgway assisted Langley's aviation research. He provided calculations of the
wing loading In aerodynamics, wing loading is the total weight of an aircraft or flying animal divided by the area of its wing. The stalling speed, takeoff speed and landing speed of an aircraft are partly determined by its wing loading. The faster an airc ...
and other aerodynamic characteristics of species like the
wandering albatross The snowy albatross (''Diomedea exulans''), also known as the wandering albatross, white-winged albatross, or goonie, is a large seabird from the family Diomedeidae Albatrosses, of the biological family (biology), family Diomedeidae, are la ...
,
turkey vulture The turkey vulture (''Cathartes aura'') is the most widespread of the New World vultures. One of three species in the genus '' Cathartes'' of the family Cathartidae, the turkey vulture ranges from southern Canada to the southernmost tip of Sou ...
, and other soaring birds. In 1883, Robert Ridgway was a founding member of the
American Ornithologists' Union The American Ornithological Society (AOS) is an ornithological organization based in the United States. The society was formed in October 2016 by the merger of the American Ornithologists' Union (AOU) and the Cooper Ornithological Society. Its ...
(AOU) and he became an associate editor of the organization's journal ''
The Auk ''Ornithology'', formerly ''The Auk'' and ''The Auk: Ornithological Advances'', is a peer-reviewed scientific journal and the official publication of the American Ornithological Society (AOS). It was established in 1884 and is published quarterly ...
''. He was prevailed upon to serve as an officer of the organization, but on the condition that he not be required to preside at public meetings. He served as a vice president of the AOU (September 1883 – November 1891) and as its president (November 1898 – November 1900). As scientific knowledge expanded quickly in the second half of the nineteenth century, the need for reorganizing the system of names used to describe North American birds grew commensurately. For example, certain names assigned by William Bartram in his catalog of 1791 were now deemed unusable. Robert Ridgway addressed this need with two publications in 1880 and 1881, while
Elliott Coues Elliott Ladd Coues (; September 9, 1842 – December 25, 1899) was an American army surgeon, historian, ornithologist, and author. He led surveys of the Arizona Territory, and later as secretary of the United States Geological and Geographi ...
published a competing checklist in 1882. Ridgway and Coues, along with
Joel Asaph Allen Joel Asaph Allen (July 19, 1838 – August 29, 1921) was an American zoology, zoologist, mammalogy, mammalogist, and ornithology, ornithologist. He became the first president of the American Ornithologists' Union, the first curator of birds and ma ...
, William Brewster, and Henry W. Henshaw, came together as a committee on
nomenclature Nomenclature (, ) is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences. (The theoretical field studying nomenclature is sometimes referred to as ''onymology'' or ''taxonymy'' ). The principl ...
and
classification Classification is the activity of assigning objects to some pre-existing classes or categories. This is distinct from the task of establishing the classes themselves (for example through cluster analysis). Examples include diagnostic tests, identif ...
, serving the newly founded AOU, to reconcile the various systems and catalogs. In 1886, the committee released ''The Code of Nomenclature and Check-List of North American Birds'', both a consistent checklist and a set of rules for the naming of birds to be described in the future. The Code settled the disagreement about capitalization of species names and established today's order of presentation, with
waterbird A water bird, alternatively waterbird or aquatic bird, is a bird that lives on or around water. In some definitions, the term ''water bird'' is especially applied to birds in freshwater ecosystems, although others make no distinction from seabi ...
s first and
passerine A passerine () is any bird of the order Passeriformes (; from Latin 'sparrow' and '-shaped') which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines generally have an anisodactyl arrangement of their ...
s last. Several of the handbook's innovations were adopted by other branches of zoology, and were incorporated into the 1905 version of the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) is a widely accepted Convention (norm), convention in zoology that rules the formal scientific name, scientific naming of organisms treated as animals. It is also informally known as the I ...
. The committee's work served to standardize the way that birds are described, identifying them at the
subspecies In Taxonomy (biology), biological classification, subspecies (: subspecies) is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (Morphology (biology), morpholog ...
level and using a three-part trinomial name. While American ornithologists embraced the descriptive detail, European researchers of the time were reluctant to adopt it. Ridgway was an enthusiastic supporter of trinomial nomenclature, although his thinking in later life became more moderate.


Other affiliations

Robert Ridgway was a corresponding member of the
Zoological Society of London The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is a charity and organization devoted to the worldwide animal conservation, conservation of animals and their habitat conservation, habitats. It was founded in 1826. Since 1828, it has maintained London Zo ...
; was associated with the Davenport (Iowa) Academy of Natural Sciences, the
New York Academy of Sciences The New York Academy of Sciences (NYAS), originally founded as the Lyceum of Natural History in January 1817, is a nonprofit professional society based in New York City, with more than 20,000 members from 100 countries. It is the fourth-oldes ...
, the Brookville, Indiana, Society of Natural History, and the Chicago Academy of Sciences; and was a foreign member of the
British Ornithologists' Union The British Ornithologists' Union (BOU) aims to encourage the study of birds (ornithology) around the world in order to understand their biology and aid their conservation. The BOU was founded in 1858 by Professor Alfred Newton, Henry Baker ...
. He was a member of the permanent ornithological committee of the first international congress at
Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
in 1884. Ridgway was also honorary member of the Nuttall Ornithological Club of
Cambridge, Massachusetts Cambridge ( ) is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. It is a suburb in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, located directly across the Charles River from Boston. The city's population as of the 2020 United States census, ...
, for which he contributed illustrations and 48 articles to its ''Bulletin''. The short-lived Ridgway Ornithological Club of
Chicago, Illinois Chicago is the List of municipalities in Illinois, most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and in the Midwestern United States. With a population of 2,746,388, as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the List of Unite ...
(active from 1883 to about 1890) was named in Ridgway's honor, and he was an honorary member. Although he lacked formal post-secondary education, Ridgway received an honorary
master's degree A master's degree (from Latin ) is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional prac ...
in science from
Indiana University Indiana University (IU) is a state university system, system of Public university, public universities in the U.S. state of Indiana. The system has two core campuses, five regional campuses, and two regional centers under the administration o ...
in 1884, as a sign of gratitude for his supplying them with bird specimens after their museum burned down. He was listed with the title of Professor in Smithsonian annual reports and staff directories, despite his lack of a teaching appointment. He is sometimes referred to as "Dr. Ridgway," particularly by writers from his home state of Illinois. Ella Dean's profile is an example.


The Harriman expedition

In 1899, Robert Ridgway joined E. H. Harriman on his famous Harriman Alaska Expedition.
John Muir John Muir ( ; April 21, 1838December 24, 1914), also known as "John of the Mountains" and "Father of the national park, National Parks", was a Scottish-born American naturalist, author, environmental philosopher, botanist, zoologist, glaciologi ...
, Louis Agassiz Fuertes,
John Burroughs John Burroughs (April 3, 1837 – March 29, 1921) was an American naturalist and nature essayist, active in the conservation movement in the United States. The first of his essay collections was ''Wake-Robin'' in 1871. In the words of his bi ...
,
Edward S. Curtis Edward Sheriff Curtis (February 19, 1868 – October 19, 1952; sometimes given as Edward Sherriff Curtis) was an American photographer and ethnologist whose work focused on the American West and Native American people. Sometimes referred to a ...
, and a number of other scientists and artists made a four-month expedition to study the
flora Flora (: floras or florae) is all the plant life present in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring (indigenous (ecology), indigenous) native plant, native plants. The corresponding term for animals is ''fauna'', and for f ...
and
fauna Fauna (: faunae or faunas) is all of the animal life present in a particular region or time. The corresponding terms for plants and fungi are ''flora'' and '' funga'', respectively. Flora, fauna, funga and other forms of life are collectively ...
of
Alaska Alaska ( ) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America. Part of the Western United States region, it is one of the two non-contiguous U.S. states, alongside Hawaii. Alaska is also considered to be the north ...
's coastline. However, the trip did not yield significant publications by Ridgway.


Other family members

Robert and Julia Ridgway had one son, Audubon Whelock Ridgway (May 15, 1877 – February 22, 1901). "Audie" had begun a promising career in ornithology at the
Field Museum of Natural History The Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH), also known as The Field Museum, is a natural history museum in Chicago, Illinois, and is one of the largest such museums in the world. The museum is popular for the size and quality of its educationa ...
when his life was cut short by a fatal bout of pneumonia. Robert Ridgway's second-born brother, John Livzey Ridgway (February 28, 1859 – December 27, 1947), was a nationally prominent bird illustrator who worked for many years at the
United States Geological Survey The United States Geological Survey (USGS), founded as the Geological Survey, is an agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior whose work spans the disciplines of biology, geography, geology, and hydrology. The agency was founded on Mar ...
, as well as the Smithsonian, the
California Institute of Technology The California Institute of Technology (branded as Caltech) is a private research university in Pasadena, California, United States. The university is responsible for many modern scientific advancements and is among a small group of institutes ...
, and the Los Angeles County Museum of History, Science, and Art. The two brothers often collaborated on illustrations, sometimes with Robert doing the drawing and John the coloring.


Later life and death

In early June 1913, Robert Ridgway and his wife Julia ("Evvie") moved to Olney, Illinois, to reduce physical and mental stress so that he might complete ''The Birds of North and Middle America'', of which five of eight parts had already appeared. They built a new house on that they had purchased in 1906, and named the place Larchmound for two large
larch Larches are deciduous conifers in the genus ''Larix'', of the family Pinaceae (subfamily Laricoideae). Growing from tall, they are native to the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere, where they are found in lowland forests in the high la ...
trees growing on the property. Ridgway also acquired a tract of located in the country, to be called Bird Haven, which he developed as a private
nature reserve A nature reserve (also known as a wildlife refuge, wildlife sanctuary, biosphere reserve or bioreserve, natural or nature preserve, or nature conservation area) is a protected area of importance for flora, fauna, funga, or features of geologic ...
for birds and as a nursery for cultivation of non-native plants. His skill in landscaping and tending to the grounds was such that his expertise in that area was in some demand. Bird Haven, in part, is now an Olney city park. Evvie's death on May 24, 1927, was a severe blow to Robert. Robert continued to live at Larchmound, tending to his beloved trees and shrubs, until his death on March 25, 1929, at the age of 78. Robert was buried at Bird Haven where Julia's ashes had been scattered.


Works

Robert Ridgway's first publication, at the age of 18, was an article about the
belted kingfisher The belted kingfisher (''Megaceryle alcyon'') is a large, conspicuous water kingfisher, native to North America. Taxonomy The first Species description, formal description of the belted kingfisher was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1 ...
. In the course of the next 60 years, he would go on to publish more than 500 titles and 13,000 printed pages, most of it concerning North American birds. Ridgway collaborated with Brewer and Baird on the five-volume ''History of North American Birds'' (three volumes on the land birds published in 1874, and two volumes published as ''The Water Birds of North America'' in 1884). In its time, the work was considered the standard work on North American ornithology. While Ridgway primarily contributed illustrations to the land bird volumes, he wrote the bulk of the water bird volumes. Ridgway provided full-color illustrations for his own books and those of others. He was at the peak of his artistic proficiency in the late 1870s. Even though certain of his contemporaries (for instance,
Daniel Giraud Elliot Daniel Giraud Elliot (March 7, 1835 – December 22, 1915) was an American zoologist and the founder of the American Ornithologist Union. Life He was born in New York City on March 7, 1835, to George and Rebecca Elliot. In 1858, he married Ann ...
) may have produced more artistically pleasing renderings, Ridgway's were the most accurate. In the words of his biographer Daniel Lewis, Ridgway "may have had the best grasp of bird coloration in the country." With the publication of ''A Manual of North American Birds'' in 1887, Robert Ridgway condensed what was known about the continent's birds into a relatively compact 642 pages and 464 outline drawings. A prototype of today's
field guide A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife (flora or fauna or funga) or other objects of natural occurrence (e.g. rocks and minerals). It is generally designed to be brought into the " field" or local area where suc ...
s, it was quite successful, going into a second edition in 1896, and was described by Montague Chamberlain as "far away the best thing we have for the working naturalist." Nevertheless, its bulk was unwieldy for use in the field, and its
identification key In biology, an identification key, taxonomic key, or frequently just key, is a printed or computer-aided device that aids in the identification of biological organisms. Historically, the most common type of identification key is the dichotomous k ...
s depended on characteristics of the bird in the hand, not field marks. Harry Oberholser characterized the quality of the illustrations as "rarely equaled, never excelled" in beauty and accuracy. With Stephen Alfred Forbes, he wrote a two-volume work, ''The Ornithology of Illinois''. Ridgway's contributions were published in two parts, in 1889 and 1895. Ridgway also published a number of papers dealing with the woody plants of his region. He contributed twenty short pieces to ''
Forest and Stream ''Forest and Stream'' was a magazine featuring hunting, fishing, and other outdoor activities in the United States. The magazine was founded in August 1873 by Charles Hallock. When independent publication ceased, in 1930, it was the ninth oldes ...
'', a magazine edited by
George Bird Grinnell George Bird Grinnell (September 20, 1849 – April 11, 1938) was an American anthropologist, historian, naturalist, and writer. Originally specializing in zoology, he became a prominent early conservationist and student of Native American life. ...
.


The color books

Robert Ridgway published two books whose goal was to standardize the names of colors used by ornithologists to describe birds. The first, ''A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists,'' appeared in 1886, and was relatively small in scope, illustrating 186 colors. It proposed a simple classification system, doing away with many subjective and evocative names that were currently popular. Ridgway sought to improve and expand upon this work. By 1898, he was in discussions with Secretary Langley about a new, expanded dictionary of color, to be published by (or at least supported by) the Smithsonian. An advisory committee was formed, with scientific illustrator
William Henry Holmes William Henry Holmes (December 1, 1846 – April 20, 1933), known as W. H. Holmes, was an American explorer, anthropologist, archaeologist, artist, scientific illustrator, cartographer, mountain climber, geologist and museum curator and dire ...
as chairman and Richard Rathbun (newly appointed assistant secretary) as one of its five members. Children's game inventor
Milton Bradley Milton Bradley (November 8, 1836 – May 30, 1911) was an American business magnate, game pioneer and publisher, credited by many with launching the board game industry, with Milton Bradley Company, his eponymous enterprise, which was purchased ...
, who had devised a color wheel for instructional use, was consulted by the project. Langley thought it important that the work include spectral information about the colors to be cataloged, and he proposed physicist and color theorist
Ogden Rood Ogden Nicholas Rood (3 February 1831 in Danbury, Connecticut – 12 November 1902 in Manhattan) was an American physicist best known for his work in color theory. Career At age 18, Rood became a student at Yale University, but after his sophomor ...
as a co-editor of the work. In 1901, however, the tension between the committee's broad vision of commercial applications for the project and Ridgway's narrow objective of a naturalist's reference book ended the Ridgway-Smithsonian collaboration in the endeavor. Ridgway published ''Color Standards and Color Nomenclature'' himself in 1912, financed in part by a loan from his friend and colleague Zeledón. The work became a standard reference used by ornithologists for decades after Ridgway's death, as well as specialists in such wide-ranging fields as
mycology Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungus, fungi, including their Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy, genetics, biochemistry, biochemical properties, and ethnomycology, use by humans. Fungi can be a source of tinder, Edible ...
,
philately Philately (; ) is the study of postage stamps and postal history. It also refers to the collection and appreciation of stamps and other philatelic products. While closely associated with stamp collecting and the study of postage, it is possibl ...
, and
food coloring Food coloring, color additive or colorant is any dye, pigment, or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or beverages. Colorants can be supplied as liquids, powders, gels, or pastes. Food coloring is commonly used in commercia ...
. The book named 1,115 colors, illustrated with painted samples reproduced on 53 plates. Special care was taken to ensure consistency of color reproduction across the edition, as well as the prevention of fading. The color samples were printed as large sheets by A. Hoen & Co., cut into swatches one inch by one-and-one-half inches, and pasted into each bound book. In the book's foreword, Ridgway acknowledged the assistance of many, among them his brother John, Zeledón, and ornithologist John Thayer. With more than a thousand colors to be named, Ridgway devised some of his own imaginative identifiers (such as Dragons-blood Red and
Pleroma Pleroma (, literally "fullness") generally refers to the totality of divine powers. It is used in Christian theological contexts, as well as in Gnosticism. The term also appears in the Epistle to the Colossians, which is traditionally attributed ...
Blue). He also paid tribute to colleagues, including Rood (with colors like Rood's Lavender), Bradley (Bradley's Blue), field guide pioneer Frank Chapman, watercolorist Samuel Prout, and others.


Descriptions of new forms

A significant proportion of Ridgway's output consisted of formal scientific descriptions of new forms of birds (new genera, species, and subspecies), many of them native to Central and South America. Many of these papers were short reports dealing with a single
taxon In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; : taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular name and ...
, but he also would describe tens of new forms in a single publication, as in a paper describing 22 species from the
Galápagos Islands The Galápagos Islands () are an archipelago of volcanic islands in the Eastern Pacific, located around the equator, west of the mainland of South America. They form the Galápagos Province of the Republic of Ecuador, with a population of sli ...
or his ''Manual of North American Birds'' (four new genera, 39 new species and subspecies). As subsequent research has revised the taxonomy of birds, not all of the forms that Ridgway described remain recognized as distinct, but his contributions are still substantial. During his lifetime, no other ornithologist described more new taxa of American birds than Ridgway. While most of the forms described and named by Ridgway came from outside the United States, in one instance he identified a new taxon first collected no earlier than 1881, in the
Catskill Mountains The Catskill Mountains, also known as the Catskills, are a physiographic province and subrange of the larger Appalachian Mountains, located in southeastern New York. As a cultural and geographic region, the Catskills are generally defined a ...
of
New York New York most commonly refers to: * New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States * New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York New York may also refer to: Places United Kingdom * ...
, an area already well-explored by ornithologists. From two specimens collected by Eugene Bicknell, Ridgway wrote the description of Bicknell's thrush as a subspecies of gray-cheeked thrush, naming it for Bicknell. The bird, a breeder of New England and southern Canada, has since been recognized as a distinct species. From specimens collected in 1888, Ridgway was the first to describe
hood mockingbird Hood may refer to: Covering Apparel * Hood (headgear), type of head covering ** Article of academic dress ** Bondage hood, sex toy * Hoodie, hooded sweatshirt Anatomy * Clitoral hood, a hood of skin surrounding the clitoris * Hood, a flap of ...
,
Española cactus finch The Española cactus finch (''Geospiza conirostris''), is a species of bird in the tanager family Thraupidae. It is one of Darwin's finches, and is endemic to the Galápagos islands, where it is restricted to Española, Genovesa, and the Darwin ...
, ''Geospiza conirostris'', and medium tree finch, all
endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...
to the Galápagos. The latter two are members of the so-called
Darwin's finch Darwin's finches (also known as the Galápagos finches) are a group of about 18 species of passerine birds. They are well known for being a classic example of adaptive radiation and for their remarkable diversity in beak form and function. The ...
group of
tanager The tanagers (singular ) comprise the bird family (biology), family Thraupidae, in the order Passeriformes. The family has a Neotropical distribution and is the second-largest family of birds. It represents about 4% of all avian species and 12 ...
s, significant for their impact on
Charles Darwin Charles Robert Darwin ( ; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English Natural history#Before 1900, naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all speci ...
's reasoning about
evolution Evolution is the change in the heritable Phenotypic trait, characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, re ...
and the emergence of new species.


''The Birds of North and Middle America''

Robert Ridgway's career-crowning work, on bird systematics, was the monumental 6,000-page ''The Birds of North and Middle America,'' published by the Smithsonian in eleven volumes between 1901 and 1950. He began the work in 1894 at the direction of Goode. A major objective of the work was to resolve problems of naming and classification in the scientific literature of the time and to identify
synonyms A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means precisely or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are a ...
. Dry, rigorous, and technically detailed in its language, the book was not considered to be accessible by the general reading public. Continuing the pattern of the ''Manual'' (and Baird's earlier ''Review of American Birds''), each volume featured an appendix of engraved outline drawings of generic characteristics. Ridgway published the eighth installment of the work, commonly known as ''Bulletin 50,'' in 1919. Although he continued to work on the project, outlining a projected two more volumes, it was incomplete at the time of his death in 1929. Following Ridgway's plan but doing his own writing, Herbert Friedmann of the Smithsonian completed the final three volumes. ''The Birds of North and Middle America'' and ''Color Standards and Color Nomenclature'' are complementary works, and indeed Ridgway divided his time between the two projects in the first decade of the century. He used his own color terms extensively throughout ''Bulletin 50''.


Legacy and recognition

Spencer Fullerton Baird and his followers emphasized precision of description, traceability through the literature, the accumulation of empirical evidence (that is, numerous specimens), and deductions drawn from facts — in opposition to the so-called "European school" of the time, which depended on personal authority. Harris calls Robert Ridgway and his ''Birds of North and Middle America'' the culmination of the "Bairdian school" of bird study. However, as ornithology around the turn of the twentieth century began to focus on bird
behavior Behavior (American English) or behaviour (British English) is the range of actions of Individual, individuals, organisms, systems or Artificial intelligence, artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or or ...
,
reproduction Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. There are two forms of reproduction: Asexual reproduction, asexual and Sexual ...
strategies, and other aspects of the living organism, Ridgway fell behind the advances made by his colleagues of the succeeding generations. Paradoxically, because the overwhelming ''Bulletin 50'' was so authoritative, no new publication could replace it for many years. Accordingly, systematics declined in importance as a means to study birds. Birds named for Ridgway include the buff-collared nightjar, ''Caprimulgus ridgwayi'' (once known as Ridgway's whip-poor-will); the turquoise cotinga, ''Cotinga ridgwayi''; the
Caribbean The Caribbean ( , ; ; ; ) is a region in the middle of the Americas centered around the Caribbean Sea in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, mostly overlapping with the West Indies. Bordered by North America to the north, Central America ...
subspecies of the
osprey The osprey (; ''Pandion haliaetus''), historically known as sea hawk, river hawk, and fish hawk, is a diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey with a cosmopolitan range. It is a large raptor, reaching more than in length and a wingspan of . It ...
, ''Pandion haliaetus ridgwayi''; a Big Island subspecies of the elepaio, ''Chasiempis sandwichensis ridgwayi'';
Ridgway's hawk Ridgway's hawk (''Buteo ridgwayi'') is a bird of prey in the family Accipitridae endemic to the island of Hispaniola (both Haiti and the Dominican Republic) in the Caribbean. It is classified as Critically Endangered because of habitat destructio ...
, ''Buteo ridgwayi''; Ridgway's rail, ''Rallus obsoletus''; Juniper Titmouse, ''Baeolophus ridgwayi;'' and many other species and subspecies. The
monotypic In biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group (taxon) that contains only one immediately subordinate taxon. A monotypic species is one that does not include subspecies or smaller, infraspecific taxa. In the case of genera, the term "unisp ...
genus '' Ridgwayia'' is named for him; it consists of Aztec thrush, ''R. pinicola''. In 1919, Ridgway was awarded the
Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal The Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal is awarded by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences "for meritorious work in zoology or paleontology study published in a three to five year period." Named after Daniel Giraud Elliot, it was first awarded in 1917. L ...
from the
National Academy of Sciences The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a United States nonprofit, NGO, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and the ...
for his ''Birds of North and Middle America''. The academy elected him to membership in 1926. In 1921, he was the first to receive the AOU's William Brewster Memorial Award, which recognizes "an exceptional body of work on birds of the Western Hemisphere." The
American Birding Association The American Birding Association (ABA) is a nonprofit organization, founded in 1969, dedicated to recreational birdwatching, birding in Canada and the United States. It has been called "the standard-bearer for serious birding in North America." ...
has established the Robert Ridgway Award for Publications in Field Ornithology, which recognizes professional achievements in field ornithology literature.


Selected publications

* Ridgway, Robert. 1869 (March). "The Belted Kingfisher Again," ''American Naturalist'
3
1):53–54. Retrieved 28 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1870. "A New Classification of the North American Falconidae, with Descriptions of Three New Species." ''Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia'
22
138–150. Retrieved 15 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1872 (December). "On the Relation between Color and Geographical Distribution in Birds, as Exhibited in Melanism and Hyperchromism." (part 1 of 2) ''American Journal of Science'', 3rd ser.
4
24): 454–460. Retrieved 21 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1873 (September). "On the Relation between Color and Geographical Distribution in Birds, as Exhibited in Melanism and Hyperchromism." (part 2 of 2) ''American Journal of Science'', 3rd ser.
5
25): 39–43. Retrieved 21 January 2013. * Baird, S.F., T.M. Brewer, and R. Ridgway. 1874. ''A History of North American Birds: Land Birds.'' Little, Brown, Boston.
Volume I
596 pp.
Volume II
590 pp.
Volume III
560 pp. Retrieved 14 January 2013. A special edition, published in the same year, of 50 copies contained 36 plates hand-colored by Ridgway. * Ridgway, Robert. 1877. "Ornithology." Volume IV, part III, pp. 303–669, of King, Clarence
''Report of the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel.''
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Retrieved 3 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1880 (September).
A Catalogue of the Birds of North America
" ''Proceedings of the United States National Museum.'
3
163–246. Retrieved 19 November 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1881.
"Nomenclature of North American Birds Chiefly Contained in the United States National Museum,"
''Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum'' 21:1–94. * Ridgway, Robert. 1882. "Description of Two New Thrushes from the United States." ''Proceedings of the United States National Museum'
4
374–379. Retrieved 15 January 2013. Description of Bicknell's thrush, as ''Hylocichla aliciæ bicknelli''. * Baird, S.F., T.M. Brewer, and R. Ridgway. 1884. ''The Water Birds of North America.'' Little, Brown, Boston.
Volume I
537 pp.
Volume II
552 pp. Retrieved 14 January 2013. * American Ornithologists' Union. 1886.
''The Code of Nomenclature and Check-List of North American Birds.''
New York. Retrieved 28 January 2013. Members of the committee: Elliott Coues, J.A. Allen, Robert Ridgway, William Brewster, and H.W. Henshaw. * Ridgway, Robert. 1886.
''A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists, and Compendium of Useful Knowledge for Ornithologists.''
Little, Brown, Boston. 129 pp. 10 colored plates and 7 plates of outline illustrations. Retrieved 4 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1887.
''A Manual of North American Birds, Illustrated by 464 Outline Drawings of the Generic Characters.''
J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia. 631 pp. Retrieved 14 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1889. "A Descriptive Catalog of the Birds of Illinois," part I of Ridgway, Robert, and Forbes, S.A.
''The Ornithology of Illinois.''
State Laboratory of Natural History, Springfield, Ill. Volume I of part I. Retrieved 22 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1890 (February). "Scientific Results of Explorations by the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer ''Albatross'', No. I: Birds Collected on the Galapagos Islands in 1888." ''Proceedings of the United States National Museum'
12
767): 101–128. Retrieved 11 March 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1891. "Directions for Collecting Birds." ''Bulletin of the United States National Museum'
39A
1–27. Retrieved 19 March 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1892.
"The Humming Birds."
''Report of the National Museum for 1890'': 253–383. Retrieved 21 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1894 (November). "Descriptions of Twenty-Two New Species from the Galapagos Islands." ''Proceedings of the United States National Museum'
17
1007): 357–370. Retrieved 22 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1895. "A Descriptive Catalog of the Birds of Illinois," part I of Ridgway, Robert, and Forbes, S.A.
''The Ornithology of Illinois.''
State Laboratory of Natural History, Springfield, Ill. Volume II of part I. Retrieved 22 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1897 (March)
"Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago."
''Proceedings of the United States National Museum'
19
1119): 459–670. Retrieved 21 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1901 (October).
''The Birds of North and Middle America. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Higher Groups, Genera, Species, and Subspecies of Birds Known to Occur in North America, from the Arctic Islands to the Isthmus of Panama, the West Indies and Other Islands of the Caribbean Sea, and the Galapagos Archipelago.'' No. 50, Part I.
U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 745 pp. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1902 (October).
''The Birds of North and Middle America.'' No. 50, Part II.
U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 854 pp. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1904 (December).
''The Birds of North and Middle America.'' No. 50, Part III.
U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 840 pp. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1907 (July).

U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 1029 pp. * Ridgway, Robert. 1911 (November).
''The Birds of North and Middle America.'' No. 50, Part V.
U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 892 pp. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1912.
''Color Standards and Color Nomenclature.''
Washington, D.C. 44 pp. 53 colored plates. Retrieved 4 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1914 (April).
''The Birds of North and Middle America.'' No. 50, Part VI.
U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 902 pp. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1916 (May).
''The Birds of North and Middle America.'' No. 50, Part VII.
U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 556 pp. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1919 (June).
''The Birds of North and Middle America.'' No. 50, Part VIII.
U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 868 pp. Retrieved 12 January 2013. * Ridgway, Robert. 1923 (April).
"A Plea for Caution in the Use of Trinomials."
''The Auk'' 40(2): 375–376. Retrieved 28 January 2013.


References


Notes


Bibliography

* * * * *


External links

* *


Color standards and color nomenclature

Historical marker commemorating Ridgway and Bird Haven

Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries
botanists database entry
Robert Ridgway bird specimen drawings
* Ridgway's (1886
''A nomenclature of colors for naturalists, and compendium of useful knowledge for ornithologists''
-
Linda Hall Library The Linda Hall Library is a privately endowed American library of science, engineering and technology located in Kansas City, Missouri, on the grounds of a urban arboretum. It claims to be the "largest independently funded public library of sc ...
* Ridgway's (1912
''Color standards and color nomenclature''
-
Linda Hall Library The Linda Hall Library is a privately endowed American library of science, engineering and technology located in Kansas City, Missouri, on the grounds of a urban arboretum. It claims to be the "largest independently funded public library of sc ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ridgway, Robert American ornithologists American illustrators American bird artists 1850 births 1929 deaths People from Mount Carmel, Illinois Smithsonian Institution people Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences People from Wabash County, Illinois People from Olney, Illinois 19th-century American painters 19th-century American male artists American male painters 20th-century American painters 20th-century American male artists