The ringworm affair refers to circumstances involving an alleged number of 20,000 to 200,000
Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""T ...
who were treated between 1948 and 1960 for
tinea capitis
Tinea capitis (also known as "herpes tonsurans", "ringworm of the hair", "ringworm of the scalp", "scalp ringworm", and "tinea tonsurans") is a cutaneous fungal infection ( dermatophytosis) of the scalp. The disease is primarily caused by dermat ...
(ringworm) with
ionizing radiation to the head and neck area within
Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
. The population suffering from the disease in Israel at the time was composed primarily of newly-arrived immigrants and populations who were expected to emigrate, mostly from
North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in t ...
, as well as some from
Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
and elsewhere, but many Jewish children were irradiated in their home countries regardless of their intent to emigrate.
The irradiation of
Mizrahi
''Mizrachi'' or ''Mizrahi'' ( he, מזרחי) has two meanings.
In the literal Hebrew meaning ''Eastern'', it may refer to:
*Mizrahi Jews, Jews from the Middle East
* Mizrahi (surname), a Sephardic surname, given to Jews who got to the Iberian ...
children is viewed by activists in Israel as the most salient example of injustices encountered in the 1950s as a result of shortcomings or irresponsibility on the part of authorities in the absorption in Israeli society of
new immigrants.
A documentary about the affair, titled ''The Ringworm Children'' (
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
: ילדי הגזזת; ''Yaldei Hagazezet''), was released in 2003. The film, which claims that 100,000 children received radiations doses thousands of times beyond what is safe, was lauded at film festivals. However, in 2018, the film's creator distanced himself from it, claiming that it "doesn't meet the scientific criteria." The exact number of Mizrahim who suffered health complications as a result of the treatment is unclear. A study by the
Israeli Ministry of Health
The Ministry of Health ( he, מִשְׂרַד הַבְּרִיאוּת, translit. ''Misrad HaBri'ut'') is a ministry in the Israeli government, responsible for formulating health policies. The ministry plans, supervises, licenses, and coordinates ...
in coordination with UNICEF, who assisted in the purchase of x-rays for the project, estimated that 15,000 children were irradiated during this period. One non-profit established to represent patients asserts that the number is as high as 200,000.
Ringworm in Israel and Jewish communities
The
scalp ringworm, also known as tinea capitis, mycosis, thrichophytia, and favus, was one of the most common
fungal
A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...
diseases in children in the Jewish communities in Israel and abroad since the 19th century. An X-ray treatment for ringworm has been used around the world as early as 1897. An estimated 200,000 children worldwide received
X-ray
X-rays (or rarely, ''X-radiation'') are a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. In many languages, it is referred to as Röntgen radiation, after the German scientist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, who discovered it in 1895 and named it ' ...
treatment for tinea capitis in accordance with the standard
Adamson-
Kienbock procedure between 1910 and 1959, until
griseofulvin
Griseofulvin is an antifungal medication used to treat a number of types of dermatophytoses (ringworm). This includes fungal infections of the nails and scalp, as well as the skin when antifungal creams have not worked. It is taken by mouth.
...
, the first effective
anti-fungal agent for ringworm, was introduced.
At the beginning of the 20th century,
Hadassah Medical Center
Hadassah Medical Center ( he, הָמֶרְכָּז הָרְפוּאִי הֲדַסָּה) is an Israeli medical organization established in 1934 that operates two university hospitals in Jerusalem – one in Ein Karem and one in Mount Scopus –, ...
in Jerusalem treated ringworm disease among the religious Jewish community in Jerusalem using
irradiation
Irradiation is the process by which an object is exposed to radiation. The exposure can originate from various sources, including natural sources. Most frequently the term refers to ionizing radiation, and to a level of radiation that will serv ...
and the disease almost disappeared.
With
mass immigration from Arab and Muslim countries in the 1940s and 1950s, many new cases of ringworm surfaced, primarily among immigrant children from Asia and
North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in t ...
, due to crowded living conditions with deficient hygiene facilities. At this time, ringworm was still treated with irradiation, under the supervision of
Hadassah Medical Center
Hadassah Medical Center ( he, הָמֶרְכָּז הָרְפוּאִי הֲדַסָּה) is an Israeli medical organization established in 1934 that operates two university hospitals in Jerusalem – one in Ein Karem and one in Mount Scopus –, ...
(Prof. Dostrovsky and Prof. Drukman).
The treatment regime increased the risk of cancerous and non-cancerous growths of the head and neck area years later among a portion of the patients. A number of research groups in Israel and the world have followed patients who were irradiated as children, in order to examine this group's susceptibility to cancerous growths. In Israel, this study was led by Professor Baruch Modan, who published an article in the medical journal ''
The Lancet
''The Lancet'' is a weekly peer-reviewed general medical journal and one of the oldest of its kind. It is also the world's highest-impact academic journal. It was founded in England in 1823.
The journal publishes original research articles, ...
'' in 1974, in which Modan determined a strong causal linkage between irradiation of ringworm patients and the appearance of growths on the head and neck.
In light of Modan's findings, in 1994 the
Knesset
The Knesset ( he, הַכְּנֶסֶת ; "gathering" or "assembly") is the unicameral legislature of Israel. As the supreme state body, the Knesset is sovereign and thus has complete control of the entirety of the Israeli government (with ...
passed a law requiring the Israeli government to provide compensation for damage to health resulting from exposure to such ringworm treatment. Compensation was available to patients (or their next of kin) treated with irradiation for ringworm between January 1, 1946, and December 31, 1960, and diagnosed with certain diseases as stipulated in the legislation. The law, however, placed the burden of proof on the claimant to submit factual evidence substantiating that they had received treatment – a proviso that generated public criticism.
''The Ringworm Children''
A documentary film in Hebrew entitled ''The Ringworm Children'' ( he, ילדי הגזזת; ''Yaldei Hagazezet''), produced by the Dimona Communications Center and directed by Asher Nachmias and David Balchasan, was released in 2003. In 2007, the film received the Best Documentary Film Award at the
Haifa International Film Festival
The Haifa International Film Festival is an annual film festival that takes place every autumn (between late September and late October), during the week-long holiday of Sukkot, in Haifa, Israel. History
The festival was inaugurated in 1983 and w ...
and was featured as a documentary at the
Israel Film Festival in
Los Angeles
Los Angeles ( ; es, Los Ángeles, link=no , ), often referred to by its initials L.A., is the largest city in the state of California and the second most populous city in the United States after New York City, as well as one of the wor ...
. The documentary harshly attacked Israel's medical establishment in the 1950s, branding the episode "the ringworm children's holocaust" (''shoat yaldei hagazezet''). It also harshly criticized the compensation law and the politicians involved in its passage.
Treatment of ringworm patients is viewed by
Mizrahi
''Mizrachi'' or ''Mizrahi'' ( he, מזרחי) has two meanings.
In the literal Hebrew meaning ''Eastern'', it may refer to:
*Mizrahi Jews, Jews from the Middle East
* Mizrahi (surname), a Sephardic surname, given to Jews who got to the Iberian ...
activists in Israel as the most salient example of injustices immigrants encountered in the 1950s as a result of shortcomings, negligence, paternalism, or irresponsibility on the part of Israeli authorities in the reception and absorption in Israeli society of new immigrants.
It is stated in the documentary that the X-ray radiation used on the children was thousands of times beyond the maximum recommended dose and it is suggested that the program was funded by the United States in order to test the effects of large radiation doses on humans.
The documentary states that 100,000 children were irradiated, and that 6,000 of them died shortly after receiving treatment. Therefore, the documentary alleged, the campaign against North African immigrants to Israel – prior to or following their arrival – was only part of an international phenomenon whose scope is still being uncovered.
In November 2018, the creator of the film, David Balchasan, stated in a television interview that the film was the result of "work that doesn't meet the scientific criteria", and that he "cannot stand behind it", as he considers himself an "honest man".
Scientific findings
Research was conducted by medical historian Professor
Shifra Shvarts, in the first decade of the 21st century, Shvarts followed a handful of parenthetical references to international organizations in Israeli primary documents, uncovering a wealth of archival material in Hadassah and United Nations archives and subsequently in the archives of a growing list of countries.
During the years 1921–1938, there was a campaign among Jews in Eastern Europe (that is, among
Ashkenazi Jews
Ashkenazi Jews ( ; he, יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz, ; yi, אַשכּנזישע ייִדן, Ashkenazishe Yidn), also known as Ashkenazic Jews or ''Ashkenazim'',, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: , singu ...
) in the course of which some 27,000 East European children were irradiated – in part to allow their families to emigrate, since ringworm was grounds for exclusion of immigrants to the United States and elsewhere.
A key figure in formulation and organization of the ringworm campaign among the Jewish community in North Africa was Professor
Moshe Prywes
Moshe Prywes (משה פריבס; January 3, 1914 - March 1998) was a Polish-Israeli physician and educator. He was the first President of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (1973-1975).
Biography
Prywes was born in Warsaw, Poland. He studied medic ...
, who would later become president of
Ben-Gurion University
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU) ( he, אוניברסיטת בן-גוריון בנגב, ''Universitat Ben-Guriyon baNegev'') is a public research university in Beersheba, Israel. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev has five campuses: the ...
and the founding dean of BGU's Medical School. Prywes traveled to North Africa in 1947; following his findings there, he formulated a comprehensive program for eradicating contagious diseases among those planning to immigrate to Israel. The program was called T.T.T., for the three leading diseases the program would address: Tinea (Ringworm), Trachoma, and Tuberculosis.
Parallel to irradiation for ringworm carried out during the 1950s in the State of Israel, irradiation for ringworm was also carried out among children in Yugoslavia (94,000), in Portugal (30,000), and in Syria (7,000). About 4,600 children were irradiated for the disease between the years 1922–1958 in just one hospital in London.
The primary agent behind these ringworm eradication operations was
UNICEF
UNICEF (), originally called the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund in full, now officially United Nations Children's Fund, is an agency of the United Nations responsible for providing humanitarian and developmental aid t ...
,
[UNICEF Archives, CF/HST/MON/1989-003.] which even assisted in the purchase of X-ray machines for this purpose. It supplied the two X-ray machines that operated in the immigrant intake and processing facility for immigrants in Israel, Sha'ar Ha'aliyah, nowadays part of
Haifa
Haifa ( he, חֵיפָה ' ; ar, حَيْفَا ') is the third-largest city in Israel—after Jerusalem and Tel Aviv—with a population of in . The city of Haifa forms part of the Haifa metropolitan area, the third-most populous metropoli ...
. With the development of the drug
griseofulvin
Griseofulvin is an antifungal medication used to treat a number of types of dermatophytoses (ringworm). This includes fungal infections of the nails and scalp, as well as the skin when antifungal creams have not worked. It is taken by mouth.
...
for treating ringworm, UNICEF, as part of its policy devoted to eradicating contagious diseases among mothers and children, began funding the supply of the drug to all countries with a high incidence of ringworm.
There is a question of how many children of Moroccan origin actually suffered health issues as a result of X-ray ringworm treatment in childhood. Estimates in the aforementioned documentary film claim there were a hundred thousand persons or more. Others go even farther: a non-profit organization, established in 1999 to organize former patients and to ensure their compensation,
put the number of Mizrahi children irradiated at 200,000.
Reports submitted to UNICEF by the Israeli Ministry of Health, published in the medical news, state that the number of children treated with irradiation in Israel between 1948–1959 was approximately 15,000. Testimony exists that shows that children of Eastern European origin who were suspected of having ringworm were also irradiated. It is hard to know their numbers but they most likely numbered a few thousand. According to Giora Leshem, who was Professor Modan's statistical partner in his 1974 study (based on the Cancer Registry), it seems that the number of Moroccans who were irradiated was in the vicinity of 15,000 children.
See also
*
First government of Israel
The first government of Israel formed by David Ben-Gurion
David Ben-Gurion ( ; he, דָּוִד בֶּן-גּוּרִיּוֹן ; born David Grün; 16 October 1886 – 1 December 1973) was the primary national founder of the State of Isr ...
*
Austerity in Israel
Austerity is a set of political-economic policies that aim to reduce government budget deficits through spending cuts, tax increases, or a combination of both. There are three primary types of austerity measures: higher taxes to fund spendi ...
*
Ma'abarot
Ma'abarot ( he, מַעְבָּרוֹת) were immigrant and refugee absorption camps established in Israel in the 1950s, constituting one of the largest public projects planned by the state to implement its sociospatial and housing policies.
T ...
*
Yemenite Children Affair
The Yemenite Children Affair () refers to the disappearance of mainly Yemenite Jewish babies and toddlers of immigrants to the newly founded state of Israel from 1948 to 1954. The number of affected ranges from 1,000 to 5,000. The majority of i ...
*
Chaim Sheba
References
Further reading
*
External links
The Ringworm Children*
''The Ringworm Children''{Dead link, date=April 2019 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes on Google Video
Aliyah
Conspiracy theories involving Israel
History of medicine
Mizrahi Jewish culture in Israel
Sephardi Jewish culture in Israel
X-rays
Mycosis-related cutaneous conditions
Radiation health effects