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''Diadophis punctatus'', commonly known as the ring-necked snake or ringneck snake, is a small, harmless
species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...
of
colubrid Colubridae (, commonly known as colubrids , from , 'snake') is a family of snakes. With 249 genera, it is the largest snake family. The earliest fossil species of the family date back to the Late Eocene epoch, with earlier origins suspected. Colu ...
snake Snakes are elongated limbless reptiles of the suborder Serpentes (). Cladistically squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales much like other members of the group. Many species of snakes have s ...
found throughout much of the United States, as well as south in Central Mexico and as far north as
Quebec, Canada Quebec is Canada's largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, New Brunswick to the southeast and a coastal border ...
. Ring-necked snakes are generally
fossorial A fossorial animal () is one that is adapted to digging and which lives primarily (but not solely) underground. Examples of fossorial vertebrates are Mole (animal), moles, badgers, naked mole-rats, meerkats, armadillos, wombats, and mole salamand ...
and somewhat secretive, by nature, and, as a
nocturnal Nocturnality is a ethology, behavior in some non-human animals characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnality, diurnal meaning the opposite. Nocturnal creatur ...
species, are rarely seen during the daytime. These snakes are believed to be fairly abundant throughout most of their range, though no scientific evaluation supports this hypothesis. Scientific research is lacking for the species, despite their apparently common status, and more in-depth investigations are greatly needed. It is the only species within the
genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
''Diadophis'' and, currently, 14
subspecies In Taxonomy (biology), biological classification, subspecies (: subspecies) is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (Morphology (biology), morpholog ...
are identified, though many
herpetologists Herpetology (from Ancient Greek ἑρπετόν ''herpetón'', meaning "reptile" or "creeping animal") is a branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians (including frogs, salamanders, and caecilians (Gymnophiona)) and reptiles (incl ...
question the morphologically based classifications. The ring-necked snake is perhaps best known for its unique defensive posture: when threatened, it curls its tail into a tight coil, partially rolls onto its back, and shows its bright red-orange underside and
ventral Standard anatomical terms of location are used to describe unambiguously the anatomy of humans and other animals. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position prov ...
surface. In nature, vivid coloration on an animal generally serves as a warning to others that it is not afraid of delivering a dose of
venom Venom or zootoxin is a type of toxin produced by an animal that is actively delivered through a wound by means of a bite, sting, or similar action. The toxin is delivered through a specially evolved ''venom apparatus'', such as fangs or a sti ...
, or that it is
poisonous A poison is any chemical substance that is harmful or lethal to living organisms. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figurati ...
if eaten; this "false warning" coloration is a form of
mimicry In evolutionary biology, mimicry is an evolved resemblance between an organism and another object, often an organism of another species. Mimicry may evolve between different species, or between individuals of the same species. In the simples ...
, a survival adaptation in which a non-venomous species (i.e., the ring-necked snake) has evolved brighter coloration, similar to truly venomous species, and used it to their advantage. Another example is seen in certain milksnakes and kingsnakes ( ''Lampropeltis'' sp.) which have red, yellow, white or black stripes, an adaptation meant to confuse predators by visually mimicking the venomous
coral snake Coral snakes are a large group of elapid snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups, the Old World coral snakes and New World coral snakes. There are 27 species of Old World coral snakes, in three genera ('' Calliophis'', '' Hemibungar ...
s (
Elapidae Elapidae (, commonly known as elapids , from , variant of "sea-fish") is a family of snakes characterized by their permanently erect fangs at the front of the mouth. Most elapids are venomous, with the exception of the genus '' Emydocephalus ...
) which share much of their range.


Description

Ring-necked snakes are fairly similar in morphology throughout much of their distribution. Its
dorsal Dorsal (from Latin ''dorsum'' ‘back’) may refer to: * Dorsal (anatomy), an anatomical term of location referring to the back or upper side of an organism or parts of an organism * Dorsal, positioned on top of an aircraft's fuselage The fus ...
coloration is solid olive, brown, bluish-gray to smoky black, broken only by a distinct yellow, red, or yellow-orange neck band. Stebbins RC (2003). ''A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians, Third Edition''. The Peterson Field Guide Series ®. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. . (''Diadophis punctatus'', pp. 345–346 + Plate 46 + Map 133). A few populations in
New Mexico New Mexico is a state in the Southwestern United States, Southwestern region of the United States. It is one of the Mountain States of the southern Rocky Mountains, sharing the Four Corners region with Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. It also ...
,
Utah Utah is a landlocked state in the Mountain states, Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It is one of the Four Corners states, sharing a border with Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico. It also borders Wyoming to the northea ...
, and other distinct locations do not have the distinctive neck band. Additionally, individuals may have reduced or partially colored neck bands that are hard to distinguish; coloration may also be more of a cream color rather than bright orange or red. Head coloration tends to be slightly darker than the rest of the body, with tendencies to be blacker than grey or olive. Ventrally, the snakes exhibit a yellow-orange to red coloration broken by crescent-shaped black spots along the margins. Some individuals lack the distinct ventral coloration, but typically retain the black spotting. Rarely do individuals lack both the ventral and neck band coloration, so the use of those two characteristics is the simplest way to distinguish the species. Size also varies across the species' distribution. Typically, adults measure in length, except for ''D. p. regalis'', which measures . Maximum size for ''D. p. punctatus'' is reported at 52 cm (20.5 in). First-year juvenile snakes are typically about and grow about a year depending on the developmental stage or resource availability. Ring-necked snakes have smooth scales with 15–17 scale rows at midbody. Males typically have small tubercles on their scales just anterior to the vent, which are usually absent in females.


Distribution

Ring-necked snakes are fairly common throughout much of the United States extending into southeastern Canada and central Mexico. Mexican populations diverged first in the phylogenetic lineage of the subspecies of ringneck species. Eastern populations cover the entire Eastern Seaboard from the
Gulf of Saint Lawrence The Gulf of St. Lawrence is a gulf that fringes the shores of the provinces of Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, in Canada, plus the islands Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, possessions of France, in ...
continuous through the Gulf Coast of Texas. Distribution moves inland into northern Minnesota, continuing diagonally through the US to include all of Iowa, eastern Nebraska, and most of Kansas. In the western US, the distribution is significantly less continuous, with spotty, distinct population segments through most of the Pacific Northwest. Populations extend from south-central Washington continuing along the extreme West Coast into Mexico. Population segments extend inland into western Idaho, through southern Nevada, into central Utah, and continuing south through Arizona and central Mexico.


Habitat

Ring-necked snakes occur in a wide variety of
habitat In ecology, habitat refers to the array of resources, biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species' habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ...
s. Preference seems to be determined by areas with abundant cover and denning locations. Northern and western subspecies are found within open
woodland A woodland () is, in the broad sense, land covered with woody plants (trees and shrubs), or in a narrow sense, synonymous with wood (or in the U.S., the '' plurale tantum'' woods), a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunli ...
s near rocky hillsides, or in wetter environments with abundant cover or woody debris. Southern subspecies exist primarily within
riparian A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. In some regions, the terms riparian woodland, riparian forest, riparian buffer zone, riparian corridor, and riparian strip are used to characterize a ripar ...
and wet environments, especially in more
arid Aridity is the condition of geographical regions which make up approximately 43% of total global available land area, characterized by low annual precipitation, increased temperatures, and limited water availability.Perez-Aguilar, L. Y., Plata ...
habitats. Stebbins (2003) identified the species as a snake of moist habitats, with moist
soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, water, and organisms that together support the life of plants and soil organisms. Some scientific definitions distinguish dirt from ''soil'' by re ...
conditions the preferred substrate. Ring-necked snakes are also not found above an elevation of . In northern regions, dens are also important in identifying suitable ring-necked snake habitat. Dens are usually shared communally, and are identifiable by an existent subsurface crevasse or hole deep enough to prevent freezing temperatures. There is intraspecific variation in how den sites are chosen, with aggregate ring-necked snakes choosing dens that are on average 3 degrees Celsius above their ideal body temperature, while solitary snakes will choose dens that maintain their ideal body temperature. Since it is a woodland reptile, it can also commonly be found under wood or scraps. This cover is also utilized as a heat source instead of directly basking. Because of hot weather, they tend to make holes and burrows, or they hide under rocks or any suitable material. They are normally found in flatland forests. Though they prefer to remain away from human-made structures, ring-neck snakes are not afraid to utilize urbanized areas as refuge from predators.


Diet

The diet of the ring-necked snake consists primarily of smaller
salamander Salamanders are a group of amphibians typically characterized by their lizard-like appearance, with slender bodies, blunt snouts, short limbs projecting at right angles to the body, and the presence of a tail in both larvae and adults. All t ...
s,
earthworm An earthworm is a soil-dwelling terrestrial invertebrate that belongs to the phylum Annelida. The term is the common name for the largest members of the class (or subclass, depending on the author) Oligochaeta. In classical systems, they we ...
s, and
slug Slug, or land slug, is a common name for any apparently shell-less Terrestrial mollusc, terrestrial gastropod mollusc. The word ''slug'' is also often used as part of the common name of any gastropod mollusc that has no shell, a very reduced ...
s, but they also sometimes eat
lizard Lizard is the common name used for all Squamata, squamate reptiles other than snakes (and to a lesser extent amphisbaenians), encompassing over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most Island#Oceanic isla ...
s,
frog A frog is any member of a diverse and largely semiaquatic group of short-bodied, tailless amphibian vertebrates composing the order (biology), order Anura (coming from the Ancient Greek , literally 'without tail'). Frog species with rough ski ...
s, and some juvenile snakes of other species. The frequency at which
prey Predation is a biological interaction in which one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not ki ...
species are chosen is dependent on their availability within the habitat. Michigan populations of the Eastern Ring-necked Snake (''
Diadophis punctatus edwardsii ''Diadophis punctatus edwardsii'', commonly known as the northern ringneck snake, is a subspecies of ''Diadophis punctatus'', a snake in the family Colubridae. The subspecies is endemic to North America. Etymology The subspecific name, ''edward ...
'') feed almost exclusively on
red-backed salamander The red-backed salamander (''Plethodon cinereus'') is a small, hardy woodland salamander species in the Family (biology), family Plethodontidae. It is also known as the redback salamander, eastern red-backed salamander,Integrated Taxonomic Inform ...
s. Ring-necked snakes use a combination of constriction and
envenomation Envenomation is the process by which venom is injected by the bite or sting of a venomous animal. Many kinds of animals, including mammals (e.g., the northern short-tailed shrew, ''Blarina brevicauda''), reptiles (e.g., many snakes), spiders, i ...
to secure their prey. In a study analyzing the dietary habits of this species, age, amount of food consumed, and temperature were conditions that highly affected digestion. The snakes do not have a true venom gland, but they do have an analogous structure called the
Duvernoy's gland The Duvernoy's gland is a gland found in some groups of ''colubridae, colubrid'' snakes. It is distinguished from the venom gland and is not found in ''viperidae, viperids'' or ''elapidae, elapids''. It was named for France, French zoologist Geo ...
derived from the same tissue, which evolved to assist in the subduing of larger prey items. Most subspecies are
rear-fanged A snake skeleton consists primarily of the skull, vertebrae, and ribs, with only vestigial remnants of the limbs. Skull The skull of a snake is a very complex structure, with numerous joints to allow the snake to swallow prey far larger than it ...
with the last
maxillary teeth A tooth (: teeth) is a hard, calcified structure found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates and used to break down food. Some animals, particularly carnivores and omnivores, also use teeth to help with capturing or wounding prey, tearin ...
on both sides of the upper jaw being longer and channeled; the notable exception is ''D. p. edwardsii'', which is fangless. The venom is produced in the Duvernoy's gland located directly behind the eye. It then drains out of an opening at the rear of the maxillary tooth. Ring-necked snakes first strike and then secure the prey using constriction. Next, they maneuver their mouths forward, ensuring the last maxillary tooth punctures the skin and allowing the venom to enter the prey's tissue. The secretion significantly affects the righting response of the prey. Ring-necked snakes are rarely aggressive to larger predators, suggesting their venom evolved as a feeding strategy rather than a defense strategy. Rather than trying to bite a predator, the snake winds up its tail into a corkscrew, exposing its brightly colored belly. Ring-necked snakes are primarily
nocturnal Nocturnality is a ethology, behavior in some non-human animals characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnality, diurnal meaning the opposite. Nocturnal creatur ...
or highly
crepuscular In zoology, a crepuscular animal is one that is active primarily during the twilight period, being matutinal (active during dawn), vespertine (biology), vespertine/vespertinal (active during dusk), or both. This is distinguished from diurnalit ...
, though some diurnal activity has been observed. Individuals are sometimes found during the day, especially on cloudy days, sunning themselves to gain heat. Yet, most individuals lie directly under surface objects warmed in the sun and use conduction with that object to gain heat. Though ring-necked snakes are highly secretive, they do display some social structure, but the exact social hierarchies have never been evaluated. Many populations have been identified to have large colonies of more than 100 individuals, and some reports indicate some smaller colonies occupy the same microhabitats.


Reproduction

Ring-necked snakes usually mate in the spring. In some subspecies, though, mating occurs in the fall, and delayed implantation occurs. Females attract males by secreting pheromones from their skin. Once the male finds a female, he starts by moving his closed mouth along the female's body. Then, the male bites the female around her neck ring, maneuvering to align their bodies so sperm can be inserted into the female's vent. Females lay their eggs in loose, aerated soils under a rock or in a rotted log.Zeiner DC, Laudenslayer WF, Mayer KE, White M (eds.) (1988–1990). ''California's Wildlife, Volume I, Amphibians and Reptiles''. Sacramento, California: California Department of Fish and Game. Three to ten eggs are deposited in early summer and hatch in August or September. The egg is elongated with a white color contrasted by yellow ends. When hatched, juveniles are
precocial Precocial species in birds and mammals are those in which the young are relatively mature and mobile from the moment of birth or hatching. They are normally nidifugous, meaning that they leave the nest shortly after birth or hatching. Altricial ...
and fend for themselves without parental care.


Subspecies

The following 14 subspecies are recognized. * '' D. p. acricus'' Paulson, 1966 — Key ring-necked snake * '' D. p. amabilis'' ( Baird & Girard, 1853) — Pacific ring-necked snake * '' D. p. anthonyi'' ( Van Denburgh & Slevin, 1942) — Todos Santos Island ring-necked snake * '' D. p. arnyi'' ( Kennicott, 1859) — prairie ring-necked snake *'' D. p. dugesii'' () — Dugès' ring-necked snake *'' D. p. edwardsii'' — northern ring-necked snake * '' D. p. modestus'' (
Bocourt Marie Firmin Bocourt (19 April 1819 – 4 February 1904) was a French zoologist and artist. As a young man, he worked as a preparateur for the zoologist Gabriel Bibron (1805–1848), later serving as a museum artist. In 1861, he was sent to Thail ...
, 1866)
— San Bernardino ring-necked snake * '' D. p. occidentalis'' (
Blanchard Blanchard is a French family name. It is also used as a given name. It derives from the Old French word ''blanchart'' which meant "whitish, bordering upon white". It is also an obsolete term for a white horse. Geographical distribution As of 2014, ...
, 1923)
— northwestern ring-necked snake * '' D. p. pulchellus'' (Baird & Girard, 1853) — coralbelly ring-necked snake * '' D. p. punctatus'' (
Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné,#Blunt, Blunt (2004), p. 171. was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming o ...
, 1766)
— southern ring-necked snake * '' D. p. regalis'' (Baird & Girard, 1853) — regal ring-necked snake * '' D. p. similis'' (Blanchard, 1923) — San Diego ring-necked snake * '' D. p. stictogenys'' (
Cope A cope ( ("rain coat") or ("cape")) is a liturgical long mantle or cloak, open at the front and fastened at the breast with a band or clasp. It may be of any liturgical colour. A cope may be worn by any rank of the Catholic or Anglican clerg ...
, 1860)
— Mississippi ring-necked snake * '' D. p. vandenburgii'' (Blanchard, 1923) — Monterey ring-necked snake


References


External links


Ringneck snake – ''Diadophis punctatus''
Species account from the Iowa Reptile and Amphibian Field Guide.
"Black Snakes": Identification and Ecology
– University of Florida fact sheet. {{Taxonbar, from=Q2704229 Dipsadinae Snakes of North America Reptiles of Canada Reptiles of Mexico Reptiles of the United States Snake, Ringneck Reptiles described in 1766 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus