Ring Cycle

(''The Ring of the Nibelung''), WWV 86, is a cycle of four German-language epic music dramas composed by Richard Wagner. The works are based loosely on characters from Germanic heroic legend, namely Norse legendary sagas and the . The composer termed the cycle a "" (stage festival play), structured in three days preceded by a ("preliminary evening"). It is often referred to as the ''Ring'' cycle, Wagner's ''Ring'', or simply ''The Ring''.

Wagner wrote the libretto and music over the course of about twenty-six years, from 1848 to 1874. The four parts that constitute the ''Ring'' cycle are, in sequence:
* ''Das Rheingold'' (''The Rhinegold'')
* ''Die Walküre'' (''The Valkyrie'')
* ''Siegfried''
* ''Götterdämmerung'' (''Twilight of the Gods'')
Individual works of the sequence are often performed separately, and indeed the operas contain dialogues that mention events in the previous operas, so that a viewer could watch any of them without having watched the previous parts and still understand the plot. However, Wagner intended them to be performed in series. The first performance as a cycle opened the first Bayreuth Festival in 1876, beginning with ''Das Rheingold'' on 13 August and ending with ''Götterdämmerung'' on 17 August. Opera stage director Anthony Freud stated that "marks the high-water mark of our art form, the most massive challenge any opera company can undertake."

Title

Wagner's title is most literally rendered in English as ''The Ring of the Nibelung''. The Nibelung of the title is the dwarf Alberich, and the ring in question is the one he fashions from the Rhinegold. The title therefore denotes "Alberich's Ring".

Content

The cycle is a work of extraordinary scale. A full performance of the cycle takes place over four nights at the opera, with a total playing time of about 15 hours, depending on the conductor's pacing. The first and shortest work, ''Das Rheingold'', has no interval and is one continuous piece of music typically lasting around two and a half hours, while the final and longest, ''Götterdämmerung'', takes up to five hours, excluding intervals. The cycle is modelled after ancient Greek dramas that were presented as three tragedies and one satyr play. The ''Ring'' proper begins with ''Die Walküre'' and ends with ''Götterdämmerung'', with ''Rheingold'' as a prelude. Wagner called ''Das Rheingold'' a ''Vorabend'' or "Preliminary Evening", and ''Die Walküre'', ''Siegfried'' and ''Götterdämmerung'' were subtitled First Day, Second Day and Third Day, respectively, of the trilogy proper.

The scale and scope of the story is epic. It follows the struggles of gods, heroes, and several mythical creatures over the eponymous magic ring that grants domination over the entire world. The drama and intrigue continue through three generations of protagonists, until the final cataclysm at the end of ''Götterdämmerung''.

The music of the cycle is thick and richly textured, and grows in complexity as the cycle proceeds. Wagner wrote for an orchestra of gargantuan proportions, including a greatly enlarged brass section with new instruments such as the Wagner tuba, bass trumpet and contrabass trombone. Remarkably, he uses a chorus only relatively briefly, in acts 2 and 3 of ''Götterdämmerung'', and then mostly of men with just a few women. He eventually had a purpose-built theatre constructed, the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, in which to perform this work. The theatre has a special stage that blends the huge orchestra with the singers' voices, allowing them to sing at a natural volume. The result was that the singers did not have to strain themselves vocally during the long performances.

List of characters

List of characters by appearance

Story

The plot revolves around a magic ring that grants the power to rule the world, forged by the Nibelung dwarf Alberich from gold he stole from the Rhine maidens in the river Rhine. With the assistance of the god Loge, Wotan – the chief of the gods – steals the ring from Alberich, but is forced to hand it over to the giants Fafner and Fasolt in payment for building the home of the gods, Valhalla, or they will take Freia, who provides the gods with the golden apples that keep them young. Wotan's schemes to regain the ring, spanning generations, drive much of the action in the story. His grandson, the mortal Siegfried, wins the ring by slaying Fafner (who slew Fasolt for the ring) – as Wotan intended – but is eventually betrayed and slain as a result of the intrigues of Alberich's son Hagen, who wants the ring for himself. Finally, the Valkyrie Brünnhilde – Siegfried's lover and Wotan's daughter who lost her immortality for defying her father in an attempt to save Siegfried's father Sigmund – returns the ring to the Rhine maidens as she commits suicide on Siegfried's funeral pyre. Hagen is drowned as he attempts to recover the ring. In the process, the gods and Valhalla are destroyed.

Wagner created the story of the ''Ring'' by fusing elements from many German and Scandinavian myths and folk-tales. The Old Norse ''Edda'' supplied much of the material for ''Das Rheingold'', while ''Die Walküre'' was largely based on the ''Völsunga saga''. ''Siegfried'' contains elements from the Eddur, the ''Völsunga saga'' and '' Thidrekssaga''. The final ''Götterdämmerung'' draws from the 12th-century German poem, the ''Nibelungenlied'', which appears to have been the original inspiration for the ''Ring''.

''The Ring'' has been the subject of myriad interpretations. For example, George Bernard Shaw, in '' The Perfect Wagnerite'', argues for a view of ''The Ring'' as an essentially socialist critique of industrial society and its abuses. Robert Donington in ''Wagner's Ring And Its Symbols'' interprets it in terms of Jungian psychology, as an account of the development of unconscious archetypes in the mind, leading towards individuation.

Concept

In his earlier operas (up to and including ''Lohengrin'') Wagner's style had been based, rather than on the Italian style of opera, on the German style as developed by Carl Maria von Weber, with elements of the grand opera style of Giacomo Meyerbeer. However he came to be dissatisfied with such a format as a means of artistic expression. He expressed this clearly in his essay " A Communication to My Friends" (1851), in which he condemned the majority of modern artists, in painting and in music, as "feminine ... the world of art close fenced from Life, in which Art plays with herself.' Where however the impressions of Life produce an overwhelming 'poetic force', we find the 'masculine, the generative path of Art'.

Wagner unfortunately found that his audiences were not willing to follow where he led them:

Finally Wagner announces:

This is his first public announcement of the form of what would become the ''Ring'' cycle.

In accordance with the ideas expressed in his essays of the period 1849–51 (including the "Communication" but also " Opera and Drama" and " The Artwork of the Future"), the four parts of the ''Ring'' were originally conceived by Wagner to be free of the traditional operatic concepts of aria and operatic chorus. The Wagner scholar Curt von Westernhagen identified three important problems discussed in "Opera and Drama" which were particularly relevant to the ''Ring'' cycle: the problem of unifying verse stress with melody; the disjunctions caused by formal arias in dramatic structure and the way in which opera music could be organised on a different basis of organic growth and modulation; and the function of musical motifs in linking elements of the plot whose connections might otherwise be inexplicit. This became known as the leitmotif technique (see below), although Wagner himself did not use this word.

However, Wagner relaxed some aspects of his self-imposed restrictions somewhat as the work progressed. As George Bernard Shaw sardonically (and slightly unfairly) noted of the last opera ''Götterdämmerung'':

Music

Leitmotifs

As a significant element in the ''Ring'' and his subsequent works, Wagner adopted the use of leitmotifs, which are recurring themes or harmonic progressions. They musically denote an action, object, emotion, character, or other subject mentioned in the text or presented onstage. Wagner referred to them in "Opera and Drama" as "guides-to-feeling", describing how they could be used to inform the listener of a musical or dramatic subtext to the action onstage in the same way as a Greek chorus did for the theatre of ancient Greece.

Instrumentation

Wagner made significant innovations in orchestration in this work. He wrote for a very large orchestra, using the whole range of instruments used singly or in combination to express the great range of emotion and events of the drama. Wagner even commissioned the production of new instruments, including the Wagner tuba, invented to fill a gap he found between the tone qualities of the horn and the trombone, as well as variations of existing instruments, such as the bass trumpet and a contrabass trombone with a double slide. He also developed the "Wagner bell", enabling the bassoon to reach the low A-natural, whereas normally B-flat is the instrument's lowest note. If such a bell is not to be used, then a contrabassoon should be employed.

All four parts have a very similar instrumentation. The core ensemble of instruments are one piccolo, three flutes (third doubling second piccolo), three oboes, cor anglais (doubling fourth oboe), three soprano clarinets, one bass clarinet, three bassoons; eight horns (fifth through eighth doubling Wagner tubas), three trumpets, one bass trumpet, three tenor trombones, one contrabass trombone (doubling bass trombone), one contrabass tuba; a percussion section with 4 timpani (requiring two players), triangle, cymbals, tam-tam; six harps and a string section consisting of 16 first and 16 second violins, 12 violas, 12 cellos and 8 double basses.

''Das Rheingold'', one offstage harp and 18 offstage anvils. ''Die Walküre'' requires one snare drum, one D clarinet (played by the third clarinettist) and an on-stage steerhorn. ''Siegfried'' requires one onstage cor anglais and one onstage horn. ''Götterdämmerung'' requires a tenor drum, as well as five onstage horns and four onstage steerhorns, one of them to be blown by Hagen.

Tonality

Much of the ''Ring'', especially from ''Siegfried'' act 3 onwards, cannot be said to be in traditional, clearly defined keys for long stretches, but rather in 'key regions', each of which flows smoothly into the following. This fluidity avoided the musical equivalent of clearly defined musical paragraphs and assisted Wagner in building the work's huge structures. Tonal indeterminacy was heightened by the increased freedom with which he used dissonance and chromaticism. Chromatically altered chords are used very liberally in the ''Ring'' and this feature, which is also prominent in ''Tristan und Isolde'', is often cited as a milestone on the way to Arnold Schoenberg's revolutionary break with the traditional concept of key and his dissolution of consonance as the basis of an organising principle in music.

Composition

In summer 1848 Wagner wrote ''The Nibelung Myth as Sketch for a Drama'', combining the medieval sources previously mentioned into a single narrative, very similar to the plot of the eventual ''Ring'' cycle, but nevertheless with substantial differences. Later that year he began writing a libretto entitled ''Siegfrieds Tod'' ("Siegfried's Death"). He was possibly stimulated by a series of articles in the ''Neue Zeitschrift für Musik'', inviting composers to write a 'national opera' based on the Nibelungenlied, a 12th-century High German poem which, since its rediscovery in 1755, had been hailed by the German Romantics as the "German national epic". ''Siegfrieds Tod'' dealt with the death of Siegfried, the central heroic figure of the Nibelungenlied. The idea had occurred to others – the correspondence of Fanny and Felix Mendelssohn in 1840/41 reveals that they were both outlining scenarios on the subject: Fanny wrote 'The hunt with Siegfried's death provides a splendid finale to the second act'.

By 1850, Wagner had completed a musical sketch (which he abandoned) for ''Siegfrieds Tod''. He now felt that he needed a preliminary opera, ''Der junge Siegfried'' ("The Young Siegfried", later renamed to "Siegfried"), to explain the events in ''Siegfrieds Tod'' and his verse draft of this was completed in May 1851. By October, he had made the momentous decision to embark on a cycle of four operas, to be played over four nights: ''Das Rheingold'', ''Die Walküre'', ''Der Junge Siegfried'' and ''Siegfrieds Tod''; the text for all four parts was completed in December 1852 and privately published in February 1853.

In November 1853, Wagner began the composition draft of ''Das Rheingold''. Unlike the verses, which were written as it were in reverse order, the music would be composed in the same order as the narrative. Composition proceeded until 1857, when the final score up to the end of act 2 of ''Siegfried'' was completed. Wagner then laid the work aside for twelve years, during which he wrote ''Tristan und Isolde'' and ''Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg''.

By 1869, Wagner was living at Tribschen on Lake Lucerne, sponsored by King Ludwig II of Bavaria. He returned to ''Siegfried'' and, remarkably, was able to pick up where he left off. In October, he completed the final work in the cycle. He chose the title ''Götterdämmerung'' instead of ''Siegfrieds Tod''. In the completed work the gods are destroyed in accordance with the new pessimistic thrust of the cycle, not redeemed as in the more optimistic originally planned ending. Wagner also decided to show onstage the events of ''Das Rheingold'' and ''Die Walküre'', which had hitherto only been presented as back-narration in the other two parts. These changes resulted in some discrepancies in the cycle, but these do not diminish the value of the work.

Performances

First productions

On King Ludwig's insistence, and over Wagner's objections, "special previews" of ''Das Rheingold'' and ''Die Walküre'' were given at the National Theatre in Munich, before the rest of the ''Ring''. Thus, ''Das Rheingold'' premiered on 22 September 1869 and ''Die Walküre'' on 26 June 1870. Wagner subsequently delayed announcing his completion of ''Siegfried'' to prevent this work also being premiered against his wishes.

Wagner had long desired to have a special festival opera house, designed by himself, for the performance of the ''Ring''. In 1871, he decided on a location in the Bavarian town of Bayreuth. In 1872, he moved to Bayreuth and the foundation stone was laid. Wagner would spend the next two years attempting to raise capital for the construction, with scant success; King Ludwig finally rescued the project in 1874 by donating the needed funds. The Bayreuth Festspielhaus opened in 1876 with the first complete performance of the ''Ring'', which took place from 13 to 17 August.

In 1882, London impresario Alfred Schulz-Curtius organized the first staging in the United Kingdom of the ''Ring'' cycle, conducted by Anton Seidl and directed by Angelo Neumann.

The first production of the ''Ring'' in Italy was in Venice (the place where Wagner died), just two months after his 1883 death, at La Fenice.

The first Australian ''Ring'' (and '' The Mastersingers of Nuremberg'') was presented in an English-language production by the British travelling Quinlan Opera Company, in conjunction with J. C. Williamson's, in Melbourne and Sydney in 1913.

Modern productions

The ''Ring'' is a major undertaking for any opera company: staging four interlinked operas requires a huge commitment both artistically and financially; hence, in most opera houses, production of a new ''Ring'' cycle will happen over a number of years, with one or two operas in the cycle being added each year. The Bayreuth Festival, where the complete cycle is performed most years, is unusual in that a new cycle is almost always created within a single year.

Early productions of the ''Ring'' cycle stayed close to Wagner's original Bayreuth staging. Trends set at Bayreuth have continued to be influential. Following the closure of the Festspielhaus during the Second World War, the 1950s saw productions by Wagner's grandsons Wieland and Wolfgang Wagner (known as the "New Bayreuth" style), which emphasised the human aspects of the drama in a more abstract setting.

Perhaps the most famous modern production was the centennial production of 1976, the '' Jahrhundertring'', directed by Patrice Chéreau and conducted by Pierre Boulez. Set in the Industrial Revolution, it replaced the depths of the Rhine with a hydroelectric power dam and featured grimy sets populated by men and gods in 19th and 20th century business suits. This drew heavily on the reading of the ''Ring'' as a revolutionary drama and critique of the modern world, famously expounded by George Bernard Shaw in ''The Perfect Wagnerite''. Early performances were booed but the audience of 1980 gave it a 45-minute ovation in its final year.

Seattle Opera has created three different productions of the tetralogy: ''Ring 1'', 1975 to 1984: Originally directed by George London, with designs by John Naccarato following the famous illustrations by Arthur Rackham. It was performed twice each summer, once in German, once in Andrew Porter's English adaptation. Henry Holt conducted all performances. ''Ring 2'', 1985–1995: Directed by Francois Rochaix, with sets and costumes designed by Robert Israel, lighting by Joan Sullivan and supertitles (the first ever created for the ''Ring'') by Sonya Friedman. The production set the action in a world of nineteenth-century theatricality; it was initially controversial in 1985, it sold out its final performances in 1995. Conductors included Armin Jordan (''Die Walküre'' in 1985), Manuel Rosenthal (1986) and Hermann Michael (1987, 1991 and 1995). ''Ring 3'', 2000–2013: the production, which became known as the "Green" ''Ring'', was in part inspired by the natural beauty of the Pacific Northwest. Directed by Stephen Wadsworth, set designer Thomas Lynch, costume designer Martin Pakledinaz, lighting designer Peter Kaczorowski; Armin Jordan conducted in 2000, Franz Vote in 2001 and Robert Spano in 2005 and 2009. The 2013 performances, conducted by Asher Fisch, were released as a commercial recording on compact disc and on iTunes.

In 2003 the first production of the cycle in Russia in modern times was conducted by Valery Gergiev at the Mariinsky Opera, Saint Petersburg, designed by George Tsypin. The production drew parallels with Ossetian mythology.

The Royal Danish Opera performed a complete ''Ring'' cycle in May 2006 in its new waterfront home, the Copenhagen Opera House. This version of the ''Ring'' tells the story from the viewpoint of Brünnhilde and has a distinct feminist angle. For example, in a key scene in ''Die Walküre'', it is Sieglinde and not Siegmund who manages to pull the sword Nothung out of a tree. At the end of the cycle, Brünnhilde does not die, but instead gives birth to Siegfried's child.

San Francisco Opera and Washington National Opera began a co-production of a new cycle in 2006 directed by Francesca Zambello. The production uses imagery from various eras of American history and has a feminist and environmentalist viewpoint. Recent performances of this production took place at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington D.C. in April/May 2016, featuring Catherine Foster and Nina Stemme as Brünnhilde, Daniel Brenna as Siegfried and Alan Held as Wotan.

Los Angeles Opera presented its first ''Ring'' cycle in 2010 directed by Achim Freyer. Freyer staged an abstract production that was praised by many critics but criticized by some of its own stars. The production featured a raked stage, flying props, screen projections and special effects.

The Metropolitan Opera began a new ''Ring'' cycle directed by French-Canadian theater director Robert Lepage in 2010. Premiering with ''Das Rheingold'' on opening night of the 2010/2011 Season conducted by James Levine with Bryn Terfel as Wotan. This was followed by ''Die Walküre'' in April 2011 starring Deborah Voigt. The 2011/12 season introduced ''Siegfried'' and ''Götterdämmerung'' with Voigt, Terfel and Jay Hunter Morris before the entire cycle was given in the Spring of 2012 conducted by Fabio Luisi (who stepped in for Levine due to health issues). Lepage's staging was dominated by a 90,000 pound (40 tonne) structure which consisted of 24 identical aluminium planks able to rotate independently on a horizontal axis across the stage, providing level, sloping, angled or moving surfaces facing the audience. Bubbles, falling stones and fire were projected on to these surfaces, linked by computer with the music and movement of the characters. The subsequent HD recordings in 2013 won the Met's orchestra and chorus the Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording for their performance. In 2019, the Metropolitan Opera revived the Lepage staging for the first time since 2013 with Philippe Jordan conducting, Greer Grimsley and Michael Volle rotating as Wotan, and Andreas Schager rotating as Siegfried and Met homegrown Christine Goerke as Brünnhilde. Lepage's "Machine", as it affectionately became known, underwent major reconfiguration for the revival in order to dampen the creaking that it had produced in the past (to the annoyance of audience members and critics) and to improve its reliability, as it had been known to break down during earlier runs including on the opening night of ''Rheingold''. Unlike its beloved predecessor directed by Viennese opera director Otto Schenk which played at the house over 22 years, the Met has confirmed that this controversial and expensive production will not return again, having lasted just shy of ten years at the house with only three complete cycles having been given. They announced it would be replaced by a new production in 2025, however though originally in partnership with the English National Opera this was cancelled due to ENO budgetary cuts and poor audience response. In 2024 they announced director Yuval Sharon would instead direct a new production with the first instalment set to premiere in the 27/28 season finishing with the full cycle in the Spring of 2030.

The Lyric Opera of Chicago has staged three complete Ring Cycles in the past four decades, with a cycle in the 1990s, the 2000s, and in the late 2010s.

The mid-1990s production by August Everding with choreography by Cirque du Soleil's Debra Brown was conducted by Zubin Mehta, with James Morris a Wotan and Eva Marton as Brünnhilde, Siegfried Jerusalem as Siegmund, and Tina Kiberg as Sieglinde.

The 2000s Ring cast included "James Morris as Wotan, Jane Eaglen as Brünnhilde, Plácido Domingo as Siegmund, and Michelle DeYoung as Sieglinde." Lyric music director Andrew Davis conduct d The company ... revived the August Everding production that it presented nine years arlier restaged by Herbert Kellner with minor changes ... The bungee-jumping Rhinemaidens and the Valkyries on trampolines from the original production, choreographed by Cirque du Soleil's Debra Brown ... returned. Sets and costumes ereby John Conklin; lighting asby Duane Schuler."

The most recent production's Das Rheingold premiered in 2016, with subsequent Ring operas Die Walküre, Siegfried, and Götterdämmerung staged between 2017 and 2019. The subsequent "full Ring" performances in the spring of 2020 were cancelled due to the COVID-19 global pandemic and has never been staged at the Lyric as the complete cycle. This production was an "Inviting and imaginative production" that returned the narrative to its theatrical roots that a Chicago Sun-Times reviewer of Das Rheingold called "eye-popping" The new production was "created by Sir David Pountney, with original set designs by ... Johan Engels overseen by Robert Innes Hopkins, costumes designed by Marie-Jeanne Lecca, lighting by Fabrice Kebour, and choreography by Denni Sayers." The production starred "Christine Goerke as Brünnhilde, Burkhard Fritz as Siegfried, Eric Owens as Wotan and the Wanderer, Samuel Youn as Alberich, Tanja Ariane Baumgartner as Fricka and Waltraute, Elisabet Strid ... and Laura Wilde ... as Sieglinde, Brandon Jovanovich as Froh/Siegmund, Stephen Milling as Hunding/Hagen, Ronnita Miller as Erda/First Norn, Stefan Margita ... and Robert Brubaker ... as Loge, Matthias Klink as Mime, Soloman Howard as Fafner, Henning von Schulman as Fasolt." Audio for the complete opera Die Walküre is available on YouTube Music, Amazon Music, SoundCloud, Deezer, and Spotify.

Opera Australia presented the ''Ring'' cycle at the State Theatre in Melbourne, Australia, in November 2013, directed by Neil Armfield and conducted by Pietari Inkinen. ''Classical Voice America'' heralded the production as "one of the best Rings anywhere in a long time." The production was presented again in Melbourne from 21 November to 16 December 2016 starring Lise Lindstrom, Stefan Vinke, Amber Wagner and Jacqueline Dark.

It is possible to perform ''The Ring'' with fewer resources than usual. In 1990, the City of Birmingham Touring Opera (now Birmingham Opera Company), presented a two-evening adaptation (by Jonathan Dove) for a limited number of solo singers, each doubling several roles and 18 orchestral players. This version was subsequently given productions in the USA. A heavily cut-down version (7 hours plus intervals) was performed at the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires on 26 November 2012 to mark the 200th anniversary of Wagner's birth.

In a different approach, '' Der Ring in Minden'' staged the cycle on the small stage of the Stadttheater Minden, beginning in 2015 with ''Das Rheingold'', followed by the other parts in the succeeding years and culminating with the complete cycle performed twice in 2019. The stage director was Gerd Heinz, and Frank Beermann conducted the Nordwestdeutsche Philharmonie, playing at the back of the stage. The singers acted in front of the orchestra, making an intimate approach to the dramatic situations possible. The project received international recognition.

Recordings of the ''Ring'' cycle

Other treatments of the ''Ring'' cycle

Orchestral versions of the ''Ring'' cycle, summarizing the work in a single movement of an hour or so, have been made by Leopold Stokowski, Lorin Maazel (''Der Ring ohne Worte'') (1988) and Henk de Vlieger (''The Ring: An Orchestral Adventure''), (1991).

English-Canadian comedian and singer Anna Russell recorded a twenty-two-minute version of the ''Ring'' for her album ''Anna Russell Sings! Again?'' in 1953, characterized by camp humour and sharp wit.

Produced by the Ridiculous Theatrical Company, Charles Ludlam's 1977 play ''Der Ring Gott Farblonjet'' was a spoof of Wagner's operas. The show received a well-reviewed 1990 revival in New York at the Lucille Lortel Theatre.

In 1991, Seattle Opera premiered a musical comedy parody of the Ring Cycle called Das Barbecü, with book and lyrics by Jim Luigs and music by Scott Warrender. It follows the outline of the cycle's plot but shifts the setting to Texas ranch country. It was later produced off-broadway and elsewhere around the world.

The German two-part television movie '' Dark Kingdom: The Dragon King'' (2004, also known as ''Ring of the Nibelungs'', ''Die Nibelungen'', ''Curse of the Ring'' and ''Sword of Xanten''), is based in some of the same material Richard Wagner used for his music dramas ''Siegfried'' and ''Götterdämmerung''.

An adaptation of Wagner's storyline was published as a graphic novel in 2018 by P. Craig Russell.

Footnotes

References

Sources

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Further reading

* Besack, Michael, ''The Esoteric Wagner: An Introduction to Der Ring des Nibelungen'', Berkeley: Regent Press, 2004 .
* Di Gaetani, John Louis, ''Penetrating Wagner's Ring: An Anthology''. New York: Da Capo Press, 1978. .

Foster, Daniel
(2010)
Wagner's Ring Cycle and the Greeks
'. Cambridge University Press. .
* Gregor-Dellin, Martin, (1983) ''Richard Wagner: His Life, His Work, His Century''. Harcourt, .
* Holman, J. K. ''Wagner's Ring: A Listener's Companion and Concordance''. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 2001.
* Lee, M. Owen, (1994) ''Wagner's Ring: Turning the Sky Round''. Amadeus Press, .
* Magee, Bryan, (1988) ''Aspects of Wagner''. Oxford University Press, .
* May, Thomas, (2004) ''Decoding Wagner''. Amadeus Press, .
* Millington, Barry (editor) (2001) ''The Wagner Compendium''. Thames & Hudson, .
* Sabor, Rudolph, (1997) ''Richard Wagner: Der Ring des Nibelungen: a companion volume''. Phaidon Press, .
* Scruton, Sir Roger, (2016)
The Ring of Truth: The Wisdom of Wagner's Ring of the Nibelung
'. Penguin UK. .
* Spotts, Frederick, (1999)
Bayreuth: A History of the Wagner Festival
'. Yale University Press. .
* Vernon, David, (2021) ''Disturbing the Universe: Wagner's Musikdrama''. Edinburgh: Candle Row Press. .

External links

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* A podcast about ''The Ring''.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ring Des Nibelungen, Der

1876 operas
Operas
Libretti by Richard Wagner
Magic rings