Rhetorical techniques

In rhetoric, a rhetorical device, persuasive device, or stylistic device is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the listener or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading them towards considering a topic from a perspective, using language designed to encourage or provoke an emotional display of a given perspective or action. They seek to make a position or argument more compelling than it would otherwise be.

Sonic devices

Sonic devices depend on sound. Sonic rhetoric is used as a clearer or swifter way of communicating content in an understandable way. Sonic rhetoric delivers messages to the reader or listener by prompting a certain reaction through auditory perception.

Alliteration

Alliteration is the repetition of the sound of an initial consonant or consonant cluster in subsequent syllables.

Assonance

Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds across neighbouring words.

Consonance

Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds across words which have been deliberately chosen. It is different from alliteration as it can happen at any place in the word, not just the beginning.

In the following example, the ''k'' sound is repeated five times.

Cacophony

Cacophony refers to the use of unpleasant sounds, such as the Plosive consonants '' k'', '' g'', '' t'', '' d'', '' p'' and '' b'', the hissing sounds '' sh'' and '' s'', and also the affricates '' ch'' and '' j'', in rapid succession in a line or passage, creating a harsh and discordant effect.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is the use of words that attempt to emulate a sound. When used colloquially, it is often accompanied by multiple exclamation marks and in all caps. It is common in comic strips and some cartoons.

Some examples: ''smek'', ''thwap'', ''kaboom'', ''ding-dong'', ''plop'', ''bang'' and ''pew''.

Word repetition

Word repetition rhetorical devices operate via repeating words or phrases in various ways, usually for emphasis.

Anadiplosis/Conduplicatio

Anadiplosis involves repeating the last word(s) of one sentence, phrase or clause at or near the beginning of the next.

Conduplicatio is similar, involving repeating a key word in subsequent clauses.

Anaphora/Epistrophe/Symploce/Epanalepsis

Anaphora is repeating the same word(s) at the beginning of successive sentences, phrases or clauses.

Epistrophe is repeating the same word(s) at the end.

Symploce is a simultaneous combination of both anaphora and epistrophe, but repeating different words at the start and end.

Epanalepsis repeats the same word(s) at the beginning and end.

Epizeuxis/Antanaclasis

Epizeuxis is repetition of the same word without interruption.

Antanaclasis is repetition of the same word but in a different sense. The repeated word has two different meanings in the context of the sentence. Antanaclasis is often used when the repeated word has multiple definitions or ways it may be interpreted. Authors typically use this rhetorical strategy in order to emphasize a certain word that contributes to the overarching theme or idea, to create a rhythm in their writing, or to give off a witty or humorous tone. This can take advantage of polysemy.

Diacope

Diacope is the repetition of a word or phrase after an intervening word or clause.

Word relation

Word relation rhetorical devices operate via deliberate connections between words within a sentence.

Antithesis/Antimetabole/Chiasmus

Antithesis involves putting together two opposite ideas in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. Contrast is emphasised by parallel but similar structures of the opposing phrases or clauses to draw the listeners' or readers' attention. Compared to chiasmus, the ideas must be opposites.

Antimetabole involves repeating but reversing the order of words, phrases or clauses. The exact same words are repeated, as opposed to antithesis or chiasmus.

Chiasmus involves parallel clause structure but in reverse order for the second part. This means that words or elements are repeated in the reverse order. The ideas thus contrasted are often related but not necessarily opposite.

Asyndeton/Polysyndeton

Asyndeton is the removal of conjunctions like "or", "and", or "but" where it might have been expected.

Polysyndeton is the use of more conjunctions than strictly needed. This device is often combined with anaphora.

Auxesis/Catacosmesis

Auxesis is arranging words in a list from least to most significant. This can create climax.

Catacosmesis, the opposite, involves arranging them from most to least significant.

This can create anticlimax for humour or other purposes.

Oxymoron

An oxymoron is a 2-word paradox often achieved through the deliberate use of antonyms. This creates an internal contradiction that can have rhetorical effect.

Zeugma

Zeugma involves the linking of two or more words or phrases that occupy the same position in a sentence to another word or phrase in the same sentence. This can take advantage of the latter word having multiple meanings depending on context to create a clever use of language that can make the sentence and the claim thus advanced more eloquent and persuasive.

In the following examples, 2 nouns (as direct objects) are linked to the same verb which must then be interpreted in 2 different ways.

Zeugma is sometimes defined broadly to include other ways in which one word in a sentence can relate to two or more others. Even simple constructions like multiple subjects linked to the same verb are then "zeugma without complication".

Discourse level

Discourse level rhetorical devices rely on relations between phrases, clauses and sentences. Often they relate to how new arguments are introduced into the text or how previous arguments are emphasized. Examples include antanagoge, apophasis, aporia, hypophora, metanoia and procatalepsis.

Amplification/Pleonasm

Amplification involves repeating a word or expression while adding more detail, to emphasise what might otherwise be passed over. This allows one to call attention to and expand a point to ensure the reader realizes its importance or centrality in the discussion.

Pleonasm involves using more words than necessary to describe an idea. This creates emphasis and can introduce additional elements of meaning.

Antanagoge

Antanagoge involves "placing a good point or benefit next to a fault criticism, or problem in order to reduce the impact or significance of the negative point".

One scenario involves a situation when one is unable to respond to a negative point and chooses instead to introduce another point to reduce the accusation's significance.

Antanagoge can also be used to positively interpret a negative situation:

Apophasis

Apophasis is the tactic of bringing up a subject by denying that it should be brought up. It is also known as paralipsis, occupatio, praeteritio, preterition, or parasiopesis.

Aporia

Aporia is the rhetorical expression of doubt.

When the rhetorical question posed is answered, this is also an instance of hypophora.

Diasyrmus

Rejecting an argument through ridiculous comparison.

Derision

This involves setting up an opposing position to ridicule without offering a counterargument.

Enthymeme

Syllogism which omits either one of the premises or the conclusion. The omitted part must be clearly understood by the reader. Sometimes this depends on contextual knowledge.
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Gish gallop

The Gish gallop is in which a person in a debate attempts to overwhelm an opponent by presenting an excessive number of arguments, without regard for their accuracy or strength, with a rapidity that makes it impossible for the opponent to address them in the time available. Gish galloping prioritizes the quantity of the galloper's arguments at the expense of their quality.

The term "Gish gallop" was coined in 1994 by the anthropologist Eugenie Scott who named it after the American creationist Duane Gish, dubbed the technique's "most avid practitioner".

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration. This can be for literary effect:

Or for argumentative effect:

Hypophora

The use of hypophora is the technique whereby one asks a question and then proceeds to answer the question.

Innuendo

This device indirectly implies an accusation without explicitly stating it. This can be combined with apophasis.

Metanoia

Metanoia qualifies a statement or by recalling or rejecting it in part or full, and then re-expressing it in a better, milder, or stronger way. A negative is often used to do the recalling.

Procatalepsis

By anticipating and answering a possible objection, procatalepsis allows an argument to continue while rebutting points opposing it. It is a relative of hypophora.

Understatement

Understatement, or meiosis, involves deliberately understating the importance, significance or magnitude of a subject.

A subtype of understatement is litotes, which uses negation:

Irony and imagery

Irony

Irony is the figure of speech where the words of a speaker intends to express a meaning that is directly opposite of the said words.

Metaphor

Metaphor connects two different things to one another. It is frequently invoked by the verb "to be". The use of metaphor in rhetoric is primarily to convey to the audience a new idea or meaning by linking it to an already familiar idea or meaning. The literary critic and rhetorician, I. A. Richards, divides a metaphor into two parts: the vehicle and the tenor.

In the following example, Romeo compares Juliet to the sun (the vehicle), and this metaphor connecting Juliet to the sun shows that Romeo sees Juliet as being radiant and regards her as an essential being (the tenor).

In the example below, John Green compares a toddler to the sun because they do not want to go to bed.

Personification

Personification is the representation of animals, inanimate objects and ideas as having human attributes.

Simile

Simile compares two different things that resemble each other in at least one way using "like" or "as" to explain the comparison.

Metonymy

Metonymy is a figure of speech where a thing or concept is referred to indirectly by the name of an attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant. For example, "crown" to denote king or queen.

Synecdoche

A synecdoche is a class of metonymy, often by means of either mentioning a part for the whole or conversely the whole for one of its parts. Examples from common English expressions include "suits" (for "businessmen"), "boots" (for "soldiers", a pars pro toto), and "America" (for "the United States of America", " totum pro parte").

See also

*Figure of speech
* Glossary of rhetorical terms
*Rhetorical modes
* Stylistic device
* Literary device

References

External links

Handbook of rhetorical devices

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