Bohemia Magazine (''Revista Bohemia''), is a

Spanish language Spanish () or Castilian () is a Romance languages, Romance language of the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin spoken on the Iberian Peninsula of Europe. Today, it is a world language, gl ...

illustrated

magazine A magazine is a periodical literature, periodical publication, print or digital, produced on a regular schedule, that contains any of a variety of subject-oriented textual and visual content (media), content forms. Magazines are generally fin ...

based in

Havana, Cuba Havana (; ) is the capital and largest city of Cuba. The heart of La Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center. It is the oldest general consumer magazine in

Cuba Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...

, and the oldest magazine in all of

Latin America Latin America is the cultural region of the Americas where Romance languages are predominantly spoken, primarily Spanish language, Spanish and Portuguese language, Portuguese. Latin America is defined according to cultural identity, not geogr ...

. It provides articles relating to

political commentary Political criticism, also referred to as political commentary or political discussion, is a type of criticism that is specific of or relevant to politics, including policies, politicians, political parties, and types of government. See also *Cr ...

long-form journalism Long-form journalism refers to a genre of journalism characterized by in-depth reporting and storytelling that has more substantial content than the average news report. These pieces often explore topics with greater detail, context and narrativ ...

history History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the Human history, human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some t ...

historical analysis History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some theorists categ ...

, and

fashion Fashion is a term used interchangeably to describe the creation of clothing, footwear, Fashion accessory, accessories, cosmetics, and jewellery of different cultural aesthetics and their mix and match into Clothing, outfits that depict distinct ...

advice. It claims to be the first magazine to publish the work of Cuban artists in full color. During the first forty years of its existence, alongside its human-interest articles, Bohemia was often critical of government overreach in Cuba - admonishing the actions of Machado,

Batista Batista is a Spanish language, Spanish or Portuguese language, Portuguese surname. Notable persons with the name include: * Batista (footballer, born 1955), Brazilian football player João Batista da Silva * Dave Bautista, Batista (wrestler) (Dave ...

Grau The Main Missile and Artillery Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation (), commonly referred to by its transliterated acronym GRAU (), is a department of the Russian Ministry of Defense. It is subordinate to the Chief of ...

, and other Cuban government administrations, enjoying the privileges of

free speech Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The right to freedom of expression has been recognise ...

to varying degrees. Under the Machado government, the revolutionary dictator began to censor the media in the 1930's, and Bohemia became the most vocal magazine in opposition to the crimes of the government. Under the Batista regime, the dictator used his Wartime powers to impose strict censorships on popular media. After the

Cuban Revolution The Cuban Revolution () was the military and political movement that overthrew the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista, who had ruled Cuba from 1952 to 1959. The revolution began after the 1952 Cuban coup d'état, in which Batista overthrew ...

, the magazine came under the current communist censorship of the Castro regime and those who followed, and many believe the modern magazine to be a propaganda outlet of the communist government. However, Bohemia has recently begun publishing articles with a journalistic perspective of the government, including unfavorable opinions about government mismanagement - especially its mismanagement of Covid-19.

Quevedo Pérez era (1908 - 1927)

On May 10, 1908, Miguel Ángel Quevedo y Pérez, a former editor of the magazine ''

El Fígaro El Fígaro was a Cuban magazine published in Havana from 1885 to 1929, with irregular publications continuing until 1933. It began as a sports magazine, but evolved into a more general interest consumer magazine and became "the driving force of t ...

,'' first published the magazine Bohemia, which he named after his favorite opera,

La bohème ''La bohème'' ( , ) is an opera in four acts,Puccini called the divisions '':wikt:quadro, quadri'', ''wikt:tableau, tableaux'' or "images", rather than ''atti'' (acts). composed by Giacomo Puccini between 1893 and 1895 to an Italian libretto b ...

, by

Giacomo Puccini Giacomo Puccini (22 December 1858 29 November 1924) was an Italian composer known primarily for List of compositions by Giacomo Puccini#Operas, his operas. Regarded as the greatest and most successful proponent of Italian opera after Verdi, he ...

.'''' The first run of the magazine folded after a few issues, after suffering financial problems. Quevedo Pérez also had to attend to the birth and raising of his child. An additional note is that in this early era of media consumption in Cuba, magazines were not the preferred method of news, with most consumers desiring particularly the journalism provided in newspapers. The magazine returned for a second run in 1910 and became one of Cuba's most popular weeklies within a few years, having to compete in the marketplace against other well-established illustrated magazines in Cuba like ''Pichardo,'' ''El Fígaro,'' and ''Revista de la Biblioteca National.'' This was described as an impressive feat even by the newspapers of the day, one of which was called ''El libro de Oro Hispano-Americano.'' In 1917'','' this newspaper promoted Bohemia as a "beautiful publication that honors the Cuban press. It has its own building, machinery, and workshops. Its circulation is very large." After the

Second Occupation of Cuba The Provisional Government of Cuba ( Spanish: ''Gobierno Provisional de Cuba'') lasted from September 1906 to February 1909. This period was also referred to as the Second occupation of Cuba. When the government of Cuban President Tomás Est ...

, Cuba was struggling to define a national identity, and Quevedo Perez desired to use his magazine to help foster that sense of a new identity, to feature Cuban artists, Cuban writers, and to look at the world from a distinctly Cuban lens.Alfredo Zayas, “En el primer aniversario de la revista ‘Bohemia’: Discurso pronunciado el 28 de mayo de 1911, from Obras Completas Vol. III: Discursos y Conferencias, Segundo Tomo, (Havana: Molina y Compania, 1942), 34- 35. Quevedo Pérez, a music lover himself, decided to begin publishing musical song sheets in the magazine for a time. Around this time, Bohemia also began sponsoring poetry readings and musical talent contests in order to increase readership. One of these events was called ''Gran Teatro Politeama''. This gala was a juvenile poetry contest, and the guest of honor was Vice President Alfredo Zayas. In the 1910's, Bohemia was not limited to sales in Cuba, and sold large numbers of magazines in foreign markets such as

Caracas Caracas ( , ), officially Santiago de León de Caracas (CCS), is the capital and largest city of Venezuela, and the center of the Metropolitan Region of Caracas (or Greater Caracas). Caracas is located along the Guaire River in the northern p ...

Mexico City Mexico City is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Mexico, largest city of Mexico, as well as the List of North American cities by population, most populous city in North America. It is one of the most important cultural and finan ...

, and

New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...

. In New York City, immigration police agents knew how popular the magazine was, and began requesting that anyone who bought the magazine at certain news agents provide their residency documentation - anyone who couldn't was deported. This resulted in hundreds of Latin Americans being deported from the city. The first year that Bohemia turned a profit was 1914, and Bohemia moved its headquarters into a new building that could accommodate its growth. They also began using newer models of printing presses and technologies. They expanded their issues to forty pages. Bohemia was the first magazine in Latin America to use

color separation Color printing or colour printing is the reproduction of an image or text in color (as opposed to simpler black and white or monochrome printing). History of color printing Woodblock printing on textiles preceded printing on paper in both Ea ...

, a method of printing that allowed it to print images in color.

Boy Scouts in Cuba

The Cuban Scouting Movement was founded in the lobby of Bohemia on February 20, 1914. In 1927, this movement was renamed the Asociación de Scouts de Cuba (ASC). Their headquarters and offices were located within the Bohemia building for many years, with Quevedo Perez being a founder and primary benefactor, having written many of their bylaws himself.

World War I and first political content

Especially regarding

Cuba during World War I The Republic of Cuba had maintained neutrality during much of World War I until German submarine warfare resumed on February 1, 1917. On April 7, one day after the United States entered the war, Cuba declared war on Germany and began to support th ...

, this war marked Bohemia's first political content with a section called ''Art and War.'' Quevedo Pérez wanted, in his Cuban nationalism, to see a country that could hold its own on the world stage, and for Cuban nationalism, this meant participating in the winning side of the war.'''' Art and War featured artistic interpretations inspired from stories from the frontlines.'''' This magazine continued to focus on Cuban life and culture as well, and this was only a section in a magazine with several sections. Cuba entered into

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

on April 7, 1917 (the same day as the United States). Bohemia campaigned to raise money so that Cuba could purchase six submarines, each one named after one of Cuba's provinces.'''' President Mario Garcia and General Emilio Nunez supported Bohemia's submarine campaign. Bohemia had such a readership in Cuba at this time that even those outside of politics supported their submarine campaign. This included

Ernesto Lecuona Ernesto Lecuona y Casado (; August 7, 1895 – November 29, 1963) was a Cuban composer and pianist, many of whose works have become standards of the Latin, jazz and classical repertoires. His over 600 compositions include songs and zarzuelas as ...

, who organized an entire music concert with the Cuban National Conservatory and performed in support of the Bohemia submarine campaign.''''

Period of decline (1920's)

1920 marked the end of the Dance of the Millions. This marked the complete collapse of the Cuban sugar market, and the collapse of the Cuban economy.'''' Bohemia also had to contend with competition in the magazines of Conrado Walter Massaguer; ''Social'' and ''Carteles.'' Quevedo Pérez's health began to rapidly deteriorate. The magazine itself reached a low point, as well. Its lowest circulation to date occurred in this period, when it printed only four thousand copies of an issue. Change was needed in order to become successful again, and in 1927, Quevedo Lastra was already eighteen years old. Quevedo Pérez considered shutting down the magazine completely, but his son convinced him to keep the magazine open, and that he would be competent enough to take over operations.''''

Quevedo Lastra era (1927 - 1959)

On January 1, 1927, Miguel Ángel Quevedo y de la Lastra became the publisher and editor of Bohemia. He concurrently finished his studies at the

University of Havana The University of Havana (UH; ) is a public university located in the Vedado district of Havana, the capital of Cuba. Founded on 5 January 1728, the university is the oldest in Cuba, and one of the first to be founded in the Americas. Originall ...

until earning his degree.'''' On November 14, 1929, Quevedo Pérez, still suffering from a diagnosed terminal illness, decided to die on his own time and committed suicide.'''' In 1930, on the first anniversary of his death, the younger Quevedo and Bohemia's editorial staff gave Quevedo Pérez a multi-page tribute. Albert_Einstein_Bohemia_1

In the same 1930 issue, Bohemia caught up with the young European scientist

Albert Einstein Albert Einstein (14 March 187918 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is best known for developing the theory of relativity. Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics. His mass–energy equivalence f ...

when he visited Cuba, with a full-page photo spread and multi-page story dedicated to explaining his life after discovering the

theory of everything A theory of everything (TOE), final theory, ultimate theory, unified field theory, or master theory is a hypothetical singular, all-encompassing, coherent theoretical physics, theoretical framework of physics that fully explains and links togeth ...

, and his enjoyment of walking on the beach. The article on Einstein was called "''El Coloso del Pensamiento Contemporáneo''." The article reads:

"This superbrain, which has revolutionized existing theories of physics and mathematics, is accompanied by the most charming and attractive personality. At home, the great thinker solves his intricate problems alone. But when he comes down from his laboratory and his mind emerges from the soaring flights of reasoning, Professor Einstein is very human and simple."

Feminist Campaign

In the late 1920's, the younger Quevedo hired

Ofelia Rodríguez Acosta Ofelia de la Concepción Rodríguez Acosta García (9 February 1902, in Pinar del Río – 28 June 1975, in Havana or Mexico) was a Cuban writer, journalist, radical feminist, and activist. She wrote feminist chronicles, stories, essays, novels, ...

in her work as a

radical feminist Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical re-ordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts, while recognizing that women's experiences are also affected by other ...

, and to help Bohemia lead Cuban society to a world of

women's suffrage Women's suffrage is the women's rights, right of women to Suffrage, vote in elections. Several instances occurred in recent centuries where women were selectively given, then stripped of, the right to vote. In Sweden, conditional women's suffra ...

and

women's equality Gender equality, also known as sexual equality, gender egalitarianism, or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making, an ...

.'''' Rodriguez Acosta was one of the leading voices for Cuban feminism in her day, and a member of Segunda Generacion Republicana. Alongside feminism, she promoted

free love Free love is a social movement that accepts all forms of love. The movement's initial goal was to separate the State (polity), state from sexual and romantic matters such as marriage, birth control, and adultery. It stated that such issues we ...

homosexuality Homosexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or Human sexual activity, sexual behavior between people of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexu ...

, class equity, anti-machismo ideals, and more radical ideas.'''' On April 6, 1930, Bohemia launched its Feminist Campaign'','' in support of the women's issues of the day''.'' Ofelia Rodriguez Acosta was at the forefront of this campaign, writing an editorial in this issue, which began:

"Feminism is one of the most important issues of our time. Its triple political, social and intellectual action is intensifying and expanding every day. BOHEMIA has always paid special attention to women's rights, although intermittently. Our enthusiastic welcome of the feminist campaign must now have a more systematic effectiveness..."

Rodriguez Acosta also led the funeral procession for Rafael Trejo, the first "martyr" of the Machado regime.''''

Machado era

When the government of Machado began to extend its censorship powers in the 1930's, Bohemia became one of the principle voices of opposition to the dictatorship of

Gerardo Machado Gerardo Machado y Morales (28 September 1869 – 29 March 1939) was a general of the Cuban War of Independence and President of Cuba from 1925 to 1933. Machado was elected president in 1924 as the leader of the Liberal Party, a moderate reform ...

. Bohemia went further than most other media institutions in Cuba in denouncing the actions of President Machado. Quevedo was jailed as a result of this several times in the early 1930s. Anti-Machado_Rebel_Call

In August 6, 1933, Bohemia published an issue in which it printed a letter that demanded Machado vacate the office of the Presidency of Cuba, which included:

"We would be guilty of insincerity or of pusillanimity if we did not raise our voices in such serious hours. Patriotism is not a sentiment that is satisfied with boisterous rhetoric, showy hangings, fiery speeches and insubstantial and false oaths. Patriotism is demanding, very demanding, and in these moments it imposes on everyone that they act with absolute honesty... You said a few years ago that you would leave the Presidency the day that there were ten citizens who considered it necessary for the salvation of the Republic. And now your departure from the relationship has been elevated to the category of a national desire... Out of respect for the sacred memories that you have so often invoked, you must prevent, with a generous manner, that the independence of Cuba suffer an eclipse. A man is never worth more than a people. And history would execrate your name if you put the independence of Cuba in danger with an inappropriate attitude. The anger of the people is uncontrollable... As long as you occupy the Palace, the Palace will be seen by the people as a symbol of misery, blood and mourning. When you abandon it definitively, the Palace will recover the prestige that corresponds to the First Magistrate of the Nation... Abandon the Presidency, General."

On August 20, 1933, Bohemia published ''TRIBUTE TO THE VICTIMS OF MACHADO,'' a special issue more than twice the page count of its normal issues, dedicated to the victims of the Machado government. This special issue sold more than forty five thousand copies, and directly accused government institutions of being implicit in the crimes of the regime. Lynched_victims_of_Gerardo_Machado

Bohemia did not stop with words in this issue. They published photographs of Machado's victims, including photographs of lynched men on a hanging tree, dead rebels, rebels being tortured, emaciated men clinging to prison bars, mass protests, gatherings of the families of political prisoners, and more. The website ''Photos of Havana'' suggests that if it were not for the publication of the ''Tribute to the victims of Machado,'' the Sergeant's Coup might never have happened the very next month. The suggestion it that it is possible that without this special issue,

Fulgencio Batista Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar (born Rubén Zaldívar; January 16, 1901 – August 6, 1973) was a Cuban military officer and politician who played a dominant role in Cuban politics from his initial rise to power as part of the 1933 Revolt of t ...

, the Pentarchy of 1933,

Manuel Benitez Valdés Manuel Benítez y Valdés was the Chief of the national police of the Republic of Cuba (1902–1959), Republic of Cuba under President Fulgencio Batista. He has been described as a "...rough, tough General..." He would often carry out Batista's ...

, and the rest of the dictators that followed the Sergeant's Coup might never have existed.

Bohemia's opposition to dictators (1933 - 1959)

In this period, Bohemia stood in opposition to what it called ''las dictaduras caudillescas,'' or the political backsliding of democracies in Latin America into dictatorships. Bohemia began publishing articles in opposition to

Anastasio Somoza García Anastasio Somoza García (1 February 1896 – 29 September 1956) was the leader of Nicaragua from 1936 until his assassination in 1956. He was officially the 21st President of Nicaragua from 1 January 1937 to 1 May 1947 and from 21 May 1950 unt ...

Rafael Trujillo Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina ( ; ; 24 October 1891 – 30 May 1961), nicknamed ''El Jefe'' (; "the boss"), was a Dominican military officer and dictator who ruled the Dominican Republic from August 1930 until Rafael Trujillo#Assassination, ...

Marcos Pérez Jiménez Marcos Evangelista Pérez Jiménez (25 April 1914 – 20 September 2001) was a Venezuelan military officer and the dictator of Venezuela from 1950 to 1958, ruling as member of the military junta from 1950 to 1952 and as president from 1952 t ...

, and

Jorge Ubico Jorge Ubico Castañeda (10 November 1878 – 14 June 1946), nicknamed Number Five or also Central America's Napoleon, was a Guatemalan military officer, politician, and dictator who served as the president of Guatemala from 1931 to 1944. A ge ...

.'''' After the Cuban Revolution of 1933 and the ouster of Machado, Bohemia also became a vocal critic of the myriad dictatorships that gripped Cuba in the 1930s, 1940s and 1950's -

Ramón Grau Ramón Grau San Martín (; 13 September 1881 – 28 July 1969) was a Cuban physician who served as President of Cuba from 1933 to 1934 and from 1944 to 1948. He was the last president (other than Carlos Manuel Piedra who was interim president ...

, and others. Bohemia_1943-01-07

From the perspective of Cuba during World War II, Bohemia also published articles in opposition to European dictators such as

Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was the dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his suicide in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the lea ...

Benito Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who, upon assuming office as Prime Minister of Italy, Prime Minister, became the dictator of Fascist Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 un ...

Francisco Franco Francisco Franco Bahamonde (born Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco Bahamonde; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general and dictator who led the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalist forces i ...

, and

António de Oliveira Salazar António de Oliveira Salazar (28 April 1889 – 27 July 1970) was a Portuguese statesman, academic, and economist who served as Portugal's President of the Council of Ministers of Portugal, President of the Council of Ministers from 1932 to 1 ...

. On November 10, 1942, Bohemia captured the last-known photograph of

Heinz Lüning Heinz August Adolf Sirich Lüning (March 28, 1911 - November 10, 1942) was an espionage agent who spied for the Abwehr in Cuba during World War II and was later executed by Cuba. It is unclear whether Lüning was incompetent or if he was on a perso ...

, the only German spy executed in all of Latin America during

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

. In 1943, Bohemia dedicated a specific section called ''En Cuba'' to draft anti-Batista articles. En Cuba was created by

Enrique de la Osa Enrique de la Osa (Delahoza) y Perdomo was a Cubans, Cuban Communist revolutionary activist, journalist, editor, and News magazine, newsmagazine publisher. He is one of the primary figures in the history of journalism in Cuba. In 1928, he created ...

and Carlos Lechuga. En Cuba critiqued the government administrations of Ramón Grau and

Carlos Prío Socarrás Carlos Manuel Prío Socarrás (; July 14, 1903 – April 5, 1977) was a Cuban politician. He served as the President of Cuba from 1948 until he was deposed by a military coup led by Fulgencio Batista on March 10, 1952, three months before new ...

after Batista's first tenure as President.'''' One of En Cuba's most passionate journalists was Eddy Chibás, who had grown up with Quevedo and attended the same school. Chibás would usually receive an advance copy of Bohemia. Chibás used his role as a journalist and radio broadcaster to enter into Cuban politics, and became in his time Cuba's most popular politician.'''' In 1944, when Bohemia investigated an event that occurred at the house of President Ramón Grau, the President called Quevedo and challenged him to a duel. Quevedo declined.'''' Beginning in 1947 with the establishment of the

Orthodox Party The Party of the Cuban People – Orthodox (, PPC-O), commonly shortened to the Orthodox Party (), was a Cuban populist political party. It was founded in 1947 by Eduardo Chibás in response to government corruption and lack of reform. Its primar ...

, journalist

(Delahoza) was a devout member of the communist movement and saw the rise of many Orthodox Party members into the Cuban government. On the night that Fulgencio Batista returned to power, Bohemia's circulation included 125,000 copies distributed in Cuba and a further 100,000 distributed abroad.'''' In 1951, Chibás received and read an advanced copy of his own obituary while on his hospital deathbed before he died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound.'''' While Chibás was lying in an open coffin, Quevedo requested that Enrique del Porto deliver Chibás his last advanced copy of Bohemia.'''' In 1952, after Fulgencio Batista returned to power in his second successful coup against

, Bohemia led the mainstream Cuban press in denouncing the

dictatorship A dictatorship is an autocratic form of government which is characterized by a leader, or a group of leaders, who hold governmental powers with few to no Limited government, limitations. Politics in a dictatorship are controlled by a dictator, ...

of Batista and supported the insurrection and revolution against Batista's regime. The Thursday after Batista came to power, Quevedo's editorial in Bohemia began:

"BOHEMIA has a tradition of struggle for democratic institutions, which it will never abandon. At all times we have raised our voice without apostasy or fear, against the regimes of force that constitute a disgrace to the continent. We lived proud of Cuba being one of the few nations in America where democracy was practiced to the fullest. From now on, that pride will be replaced by great despondency, by deep anguish. This country has also just entered the fateful series of American republics where governments remain or succeed one another without the people intervening in the alternatives of Power…"''''

Batista then assigned Ernesto de la Fe to be his

Minister of Propaganda A ministry of propaganda also known as agency, bureau or department of propaganda is the part of a government charged with generating and distributing propaganda. Though governments routinely engage in propaganda, ministries or departments with t ...

, who ensured an era of soft censorships. Ernesto tried to get Bohemia on board with Batista's vision, but Quevedo refused. Bohemia continued to print articles in opposition to Batista's dictatorship. On July 26, 1953,

Fidel Castro Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (13 August 1926 – 25 November 2016) was a Cuban politician and revolutionary who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and President of Cuba, president ...

led the

attack on the Moncada Barracks The Moncada Barracks were military barracks in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba named after General Guillermo Moncada, a hero of the Cuban War of Independence. On 26 July 1953, the barracks was the site of an armed attack by a small group of revolutiona ...

Marta Rojas Marta Rojas (May 17, 1928 – October 3, 2021) was a Cuban journalist, historian, historical fiction writer, and revolutionary heroine. A witness to the 26 July 1953 assault on the Moncada Barracks, she reported on the subject of censorship to ''Re ...

and Francisco Cano were in

Santiago Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile (), is the capital and largest city of Chile and one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is located in the country's central valley and is the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Regi ...

that night, and took photographs of the events that unfolded.'''' Quevedo saw the photographs, and decided to hire Rojas on the spot. He said he would publish these photographs in the next edition of Bohemia, but they never got the chance to tell the real story - due to censorship laws, they published the photos but printed the government press release.'''' Batista at this time imposed strict censorships on popular media, and this included Bohemia. This was Batista's Law of Public Order. Toward the end of 1953, Quevedo purchased Bohemia's strongest competing magazines, ''Carteles'' and ''

Vanidades ''Vanidades'' (Spanish for ''Vanities'') is one of the most popular Spanish language women's magazines. Published by Editorial Televisa across the United States and Hispanic America, it was launched in Cuba in February 1937 by Editorial Carteles ...

''.'''' Around this period, Batista ordered his men to abduct Quevedo from his home in the middle of the night. They brought him to the Lagüito and tortured him. They forced him to drink a liter of

castor oil Castor oil is a vegetable oil pressed from castor beans, the seeds of the plant ''Ricinus communis''. The seeds are 40 to 60 percent oil. It is a colourless or pale yellow liquid with a distinct taste and odor. Its boiling point is and its den ...

(Spanish: palmacristi), in a practice that Cubans called Palmacristazo. Quevedo suffered stomach problems for the rest of his life.'''' Quevedo and Bohemia continued to oppose Batista, and the other dictators around Latin America. In 1954,

Carlos Castillo Armas Carlos Castillo Armas (; 4 November 191426 July 1957) was a Guatemalan military officer and politician who was the 28th president of Guatemala, serving from 1954 to 1957 after taking power in a coup d'état. A member of the far-right Nationa ...

and Enrique Salazr-Liekens wrote an open letter to Bohemia, responding to the magazine's negative coverage of their coup. Bohemia published the letter, along with photographs and captions Liekens gave to Bohemia, regarding the savages of the previously overthrown government. In February 1954, Bohemia changed its style and format.'''' On February 28, 1954, after the Buenavista Orthodox Party Conference, Bohemia endorsed Raúl Chibás for President.'''' On February 26, 1947, Batista lifted press censorship. Bohemia's first uncensored edition was the first Cuban press to print the story of the

Sierra Maestra The Sierra Maestra is a mountain range that runs westward across the south of the old Oriente Province in southeast Cuba, rising abruptly from the coast. The range falls mainly within the Santiago de Cuba and in Granma Provinces. Some view i ...

rebellion in its entirety. Quevedo wrote:

"Either we express our thoughts on everything with complete freedom, or we keep our thoughts to ourselves until better times come and it is possible to bring them to light without obstacles or dissimulation. This is our motto. We owe it to ourselves and we want to believe that it is the maximum guarantee for our hundreds of thousands of readers. Now that the period of censorship is over, BOHEMIA is once again what it has always been: an independent publication, free of all political partisanship, a passionate lover and defender of freedom, firm in its doctrine and in its democratic faith, and careful to ensure that in Cuba the majority will of the people is respected and human rights are worshipped."

On March 17, 1957, Bohemia covered the attempted assassination of Batista by

José Antonio Echeverría José Antonio Echeverría Bianchi (July 16, 1932 – March 13, 1957) was a Cuban prominent figure in the Cuban Revolution against President Fulgencio Batista. Echeverría was the President of the Federation of University Students (Federación Es ...

. Bohemia wrote:

"We would NEVER have wanted to publish the following information. It hurts our hearts as Cubans; it hurts our conscience as journalists. For five years, BOHEMIA has been advocating formulas that would allow for a national understanding. We have repeated it tirelessly: we need to arrive at a political solution that prevents the breaking out of a civil war. Unfortunately, this war is there and no one can hide it, least of all a publication like BOHEMIA, which owes itself above all to the people of Cuba, whom it has always served with dedication and loyalty. When we say "the people of Cuba" we mean the entire nation, all the people, all Cubans, whatever their parties or tendencies, their successes or mistakes. Because we firmly believe that the health and well-being of the country are above all, and that they must be taken care of above all circumstantial or transitory considerations. And we believe that the first and best way for a magazine like BOHEMIA to serve its public is to keep it well informed, objectively and abundantly informed about the events that most profoundly affect national life. Hence the following reports and many other pieces of information which, before and after censorship, have had the finality not to disturb the already rather murky national political atmosphere, but, on the contrary, to shed some ray of light on it in the hope that it may yet be cleared up. It only remains for us to add that we regret that, due to the restrictions imposed on the press, what we are offering our readers is only a small part of what we should have published. Even in the most critical moments of international wars, the authorities usually give the representatives of the press the basic facilities for the performance of their mission. That our authorities have closed the door to news workers is regrettable, not only from a strictly informative point of view, but also in consideration of the highest interests of the nation. It is axiomatic that nothing favors rumor and slander as much as the blackout of true news, clear and verified news. by those who have the right and duty to transmit them to the people. Depriving this people of true and abundant information is the best way to keep them in a state of anxiety and perplexity!"

In support of the

26th of July Movement The 26 July Movement (; M-26-7) was a Cuban vanguard revolutionary organization and later a political party led by Fidel Castro. The movement's name commemorates the failed 1953 attack on the Moncada Barracks in Santiago de Cuba, part of an at ...

, Quevedo printed every 26th page of the magazine in red and black ink. By 1958, Bohemia's regular circulation was around half a million copies, distributed all over the Americas.'''' On July 26, 1958 the magazine published the

Sierra Maestra Manifesto Sierra (Spanish for "mountain range" or "mountain chain" and "saw", from Latin '' serra'') may refer to the following: Places Mountains and mountain ranges * Sierra de Juárez, a mountain range in Baja California, Mexico * Sierra de las Nieves ...

, a document that purported to unify the opposition groups fighting Batista. Around this time, Fidel Castro told the magazine that he was not a communist. Even though people generally knew that Fidel had communist sympathies - not many people involved in the Revolution had any idea that Fidel Castro would implement a Communist state in Cuba. Quevedo did not know this, the CIA did not know this, and many of the citizens of Cuba did not know this. It has been argued by many Cuban historians that - much like the overthrow of Machado - Fidel Castro's revolutionary movement would not have been successful without the support of Bohemia.''''

Liberty Edition, 1959

On January 11, 1959, after the success of the

, Bohemia published the first Liberty Edition issue, of which more than one million copies of the magazine were printed, and sold out in just a few hours. In the Liberty Edition, Bohemia published photographs of crimes committed by the violent Batista regime against revolutionaries, and accounts of additional crimes - including a total of 20,000 dead at the hands of the Batista regime. The Liberty Edition was comprised in three issues, with the second issue being published on January 25, and the third issue being published on February 1. The Bohemia reporter Agustin Alles said that Quevedo did not want to put Fidel's face on the cover of this issue. Oscar Zangroniz, from Bohemia's advertising department told ''Cubaen Centro'' about how Fidel Castro was featured on the cover of the Liberty Edition:

“ arioKuchilán brought the drawing where Fidel appeared as a Christ and said that it could not be published in ''Prensa Libre'' ewspaperbecause there were no colors. Fidel was there, but he acted indifferent, as if he were not listening to the conversation. When everyone left, Quevedo called me and asked if we should publish it and I answered that we had only two options: either publish it or he uevedohad to pack his bags to leave Cuba.”

Quevedo wound up fleeing Cuba within the year anyways. In December 1959, Quevedo sent journalists to the Eastern part of Cuba on a fact-finding mission to investigate the agrarian sector, and the journalists Carlos Castañeda, Lilian Castañeda and Eduardo Hernandez reported back that

Marxists Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, and ...

were teaching classes in schools in this region. Quevedo, and the rest of Cuba, slowly started to realize that Fidel's revolution had been infiltrated by Communists, where the majority of those involved in the Revolution and the

had never been Communists, and were not comfortable with the idea of a communist state.'''' In July 1960, Quevedo fled the country and published the magazine '' Bohemia Libre'' while in exile. In 1969, he committed

suicide by gunshot A suicide method is any means by which a person may choose to end their life. Suicide attempts do not always result in death, and a non-fatal suicide attempt can leave the person with serious physical injuries, long-term health problems, or ...

, after apologizing for his role in bringing Castro to power.

Communist era (1959-onwards)

According to ''Cubaen Centro:''

"...the accusations against Batista created the false perception that Quevedo was a supporter of Castro, but in reality he was advocating a peaceful and electoral solution to the Cuban problem. And since Castro knew perfectly well that the magazine was very well received among Cubans, 'he maneuvered against Quevedo to impose
Enrique De la Osa Enrique de la Osa (Delahoza) y Perdomo was a Cubans, Cuban Communist revolutionary activist, journalist, editor, and News magazine, newsmagazine publisher. He is one of the primary figures in the history of journalism in Cuba. In 1928, he created ...
as director and end ''Bohemia'' 's independence.'"

Bohemia became subject to the laws of the

communist state A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state in which the totality of the power belongs to a party adhering to some form of Marxism–Leninism, a branch of the communist ideology. Marxism–Leninism was ...

, entering into its era of communist-style government censorship, and its editorial style quickly aligned with state-sponsored ideology. This style of censorship was similar in character to the censorship era of Batista. However, in the last twenty years, government censorship of Bohemia has fluctuated with the softening of Cuban relations with the United States, to the point where some in the government have suggested that it is essential for the survival of the magazine to become independent again. In 2018, the head of the state news agency ''National Information'', Heriberto Rosabal Espinosa said:

“Bohemia is adapting to a new scenario, to new conditions and circumstances created by technological development, particularly in the field of information and communications. This means updating ourselves, investing in technology, for example, in training, to improve both the printed magazine and its digital version, and to be able to undertake other editorial or communication projects in general. At the same time, we are trying to change in a deeper, qualitative sense. It also involves changing ways of thinking and doing things; transforming long-established routines; incorporating new concepts and practices, all of which is always more difficult, especially for those who have been acting in the way that needs to be changed for longer."

Enrique de la Osa was director of the magazine until 1971, when it was taken over by

Jose Fernandez Vega Jose is the English language, English transliteration of the Hebrew language, Hebrew and Aramaic language, Aramaic name ''Yose'', which is etymologically linked to ''Yosef'' or Joseph. Given name Mishnaic and Talmudic periods *Jose ben Abin *Jos ...

. Bohemia had a large readership through the 80's and 90's, but its readership has largely been in decline since the turn of the twenty-first century. Bohemia faces the same issues that all newsmagazines around the world face regarding the digitization of information and the evolving readership model. Bohemia published its first online edition in April 2002. However, with the softening of Cuban relations with the United States, and the dissolution of the PCC in 2018, Bohemia has started publishing articles again with a negative slant toward government overreach. Especially, since the Covid-19 pandemic, Bohemia outright reported that the Cuban government mismanagement was responsible for the crisis that followed in Cuba.

External links

* The University of Florida digital archive containing every issue of Bohemia can be found at: https://original-ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00029010/01839/allvolumes * Digital Library of the Caribbean archives: https://dloc.com/results?filter=genre%3ARevistas&filter=language%3ASpanish&filter=collections%3ABiblioteca%20Nacional%20de%20Cuba%20Jos%C3%A9%20Mart%C3%AD%20&page=1&q=Bohemia&sort=desc
Official website
of the online edition of Bohemia

Notable journalists and writers

Fernando Ortiz Fernández Fernando Ortiz Fernández (16 July 1881 – 10 April 1969) was a Cuban essayist, anthropologist, ethnomusicologist and scholar of Afro-Cuban culture. Ortiz was a prolific polymath dedicated to exploring, recording, and understanding all aspects o ...

* Gerardo del Valle * Manuel Cuellar Vizcanio *

* Carlos Lechuga * Pedro Pablo Rodriguez * Eddy Chibás * Antonio Ortega * Carlos Castañeda *

Agustín Acosta (poet) Agustín Acosta y Bello (1886–1979) was a Cubans, Cuban poet, essayist, writer and politician. Acosta is considered by historians to be one of the most important Cuban writers of the twentieth century, and one of the three most important poets ...

Notable photographers

* Fransisco Cano * Eduardo Hernandez (Guayo)

Notable artists

* Mario Kuchilán *

José Manuel Acosta Bello José Manuel Acosta y Bello was a Cuban painter, photographer, cartoonist, sculptor, and artist. Biography He graduated with first letters from a Catholic Seminary. After graduating, he became a clerk of an "old style" business house, commissio ...

References

{{Media in Cuba Magazines published in Cuba Magazines established in 1908