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The Quapaw ( ,
Quapaw The Quapaw ( , Quapaw language, Quapaw: ) or Arkansas, officially the Quapaw Nation, is a List of federally recognized tribes in the United States, U.S. federally recognized tribe comprising about 6,000 citizens. Also known as the Ogáxpa or � ...
: ) or Arkansas, officially the Quapaw Nation, is a U.S. federally recognized tribe comprising about 6,000 citizens. Also known as the Ogáxpa or “Downstream” people, their ancestral homelands are traced from what is now the
Ohio River The Ohio River () is a river in the United States. It is located at the boundary of the Midwestern and Southern United States, flowing in a southwesterly direction from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to its river mouth, mouth on the Mississippi Riv ...
, west to the
Mississippi River The Mississippi River is the main stem, primary river of the largest drainage basin in the United States. It is the second-longest river in the United States, behind only the Missouri River, Missouri. From its traditional source of Lake Ita ...
to present-day
St. Louis St. Louis ( , sometimes referred to as St. Louis City, Saint Louis or STL) is an independent city in the U.S. state of Missouri. It lies near the confluence of the Mississippi and the Missouri rivers. In 2020, the city proper had a populatio ...
, south across present-day
Arkansas Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the West South Central region of the Southern United States. It borders Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, and Oklahoma ...
and eastern and southern
Oklahoma Oklahoma ( ; Choctaw language, Choctaw: , ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Texas to the south and west, Kansas to the north, Missouri to the northea ...
. The government forcibly removed them from
Arkansas Territory The Arkansas Territory was a organized incorporated territory of the United States, territory of the United States from July 4, 1819, to June 15, 1836, when the final extent of Arkansas Territory was admitted to the United States, Union as the ...
in 1834. The
tribal The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide use of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. The definition is contested, in part due to conflict ...
capital Capital and its variations may refer to: Common uses * Capital city, a municipality of primary status ** Capital region, a metropolitan region containing the capital ** List of national capitals * Capital letter, an upper-case letter Econom ...
is
Quapaw The Quapaw ( , Quapaw language, Quapaw: ) or Arkansas, officially the Quapaw Nation, is a List of federally recognized tribes in the United States, U.S. federally recognized tribe comprising about 6,000 citizens. Also known as the Ogáxpa or � ...
, Oklahoma.


Etymology

The Quapaw broke from the other
Dhegiha The Dhegihan languages are a group of Siouan languages that include Kansa– Osage, Omaha–Ponca, and Quapaw. Their historical region included parts of the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys, the Great Plains, and southeastern North America. T ...
tribes and migrated down the Mississippi River into present-day Arkansas many generations before European contact. After that, the tribe began to refer to themselves Ogáxpa, which means the “Downstream” people." This was the name of their primary village or tribal band. Historically, it was more common for the people to identify by the name of their village or band. However, Ogáxpa would also sometimes be used to refer to the entire tribe. Overtime it would become the accepted name for the entire tribe. Colonial French would sometimes write this name as "Kappa". Algonquian-speaking people originally referred to the Quapaw as ''Akansa'', an Illini word for “People of the South Wind”. As French explorers
Jacques Marquette Jacques Marquette, Society of Jesus, S.J. (; June 1, 1637 – May 18, 1675), sometimes known as Père Marquette or James Marquette, was a French Society of Jesus, Jesuit missionary who founded Michigan's first European settlement, Sault Ste. M ...
and
Louis Jolliet Louis Jolliet (; September 21, 1645after May 1700) was a French-Canadian explorer known for his discoveries in North America. In 1673, Jolliet and Jacques Marquette, a Jesuit Catholic priest and missionary, were the first non-Natives to explore ...
encountered and interacted with the Illinois before they did the Quapaw, they adopted this
exonym An endonym (also known as autonym ) is a common, name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language, or dialect, meaning that it is used inside a particular group or linguistic community to identify or designate them ...
. Later the French ''
voyageurs Voyageurs (; ) were 18th- and 19th-century French and later French Canadians and others who transported furs by canoe at the peak of the North American fur trade. The emblematic meaning of the term applies to places (New France, including the ...
'' continued to use this term and adapted it as ''Arcansas''. The French named the
Arkansas River The Arkansas River is a major tributary of the Mississippi River. It generally flows to the east and southeast as it traverses the U.S. states of Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The river's source basin lies in Colorado, specifically ...
and
Arkansas Post The Arkansas Post (; ), officially the Arkansas Post National Memorial, was the first European colonization of the Americas, European settlement located along the Mississippi River, in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain, and in the present-day U. ...
after the Quapaw. Other spellings in historical use included ''Akanza'', ''Acansa'', ''Acansea'', ''Acansia'', ''Accance'', and ''Accancea''. English-speaking settlers who arrived later in the region adopted the name used by the French, adapting it to English spelling conventions. The term "Quapaw" comes from the American English attempt to say Ogáxpa.


History


Beginnings (before 1682)

The Quapaw are descended from a historical group of Dhegiha-speaking people who lived in the lower Ohio River valley area. The modern descendants of this language group include the
Omaha Omaha ( ) is the List of cities in Nebraska, most populous city in the U.S. state of Nebraska. It is located in the Midwestern United States along the Missouri River, about north of the mouth of the Platte River. The nation's List of United S ...
,
Ponca The Ponca people are a nation primarily located in the Great Plains of North America that share a common Ponca culture, history, and language, identified with two Indigenous nations: the Ponca Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma or the Ponca Tribe of ...
, Osage and Kaw, who are all independent tribal nations today. All Dhegiha-speaking tribes are believed to have migrated west and south from the Ohio River valley after 1200 CE. Scholars are divided as to whether they think the Quapaw and other related groups left before or after the
Beaver Wars The Beaver Wars (), also known as the Iroquois Wars or the French and Iroquois Wars (), were a series of conflicts fought intermittently during the 17th century in North America throughout the Saint Lawrence River valley in Canada and the Great L ...
of the 17th century, in which the Five Nations of the Iroquois (based south of the Great Lakes and to the east of this area), drove other tribes out of the Ohio Valley and retained the area for hunting grounds.Louis F. Burns
"Osage"
''Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture'', retrieved 2 March 2009
The oral history of the Quapaw people describes that the Quapaw separated from the Omaha, Ponca, Osage, and Kaw, near the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, due to a lack of game. No correlation with gun bearing Iroquois running the Quapaw into Arkansas along with the Omaha, Ponca, Osage and Kaw is described by historic or modern Quapaw sources, and appears to be an entirely modern conjecture by scholars which is unsupported by the Quapaw. Similar and supporting oral history is well documented and supported by other Dhegiha tribes. It is also notable that there are carbon dated sites which are strongly correlated to the Dhegiha which demonstrate they were split and moved to the respective regions by 1500. The Quapaw reached their historical territory, the area of the
confluence In geography, a confluence (also ''conflux'') occurs where two or more watercourses join to form a single channel (geography), channel. A confluence can occur in several configurations: at the point where a tributary joins a larger river (main ...
of the
Arkansas Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the West South Central region of the Southern United States. It borders Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, and Oklahoma ...
and
Mississippi Mississippi ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Alabama to the east, the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Louisiana to the s ...
rivers, at least by the mid-17th century. The timing of the Quapaw migration into their ancestral territory in the historical period has been the subject of considerable debate by scholars of various fields. It is referred to as the "Quapaw Paradox" by academics. Many professional archaeologists have introduced numerous migration scenarios and time frames, but none has conclusive evidence. Glottochronological studies suggest the Quapaw separated from the other Dhegihan-speaking peoples in a period ranging between AD 950 to as late as AD 1513. Linguistic studies also support an earlier separation date, within a few generations of the initial introduction of corn and long before the introduction of the horse. In 1541, when the Spanish explorer
Hernando de Soto Hernando de Soto (; ; 1497 – 21 May 1542) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who was involved in expeditions in Nicaragua and the Yucatan Peninsula. He played an important role in Francisco Pizarro's conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru, ...
led an expedition that came across the town of '' Pacaha'' (also recorded by Garcilaso as ''Capaha''), between the
Mississippi River The Mississippi River is the main stem, primary river of the largest drainage basin in the United States. It is the second-longest river in the United States, behind only the Missouri River, Missouri. From its traditional source of Lake Ita ...
and a lake on the Arkansas side, apparently in present-day Phillips County. His party described the village as strongly
palisade A palisade, sometimes called a stakewall or a paling, is typically a row of closely placed, high vertical standing tree trunks or wooden or iron stakes used as a fence for enclosure or as a defensive wall. Palisades can form a stockade. Etymo ...
d and nearly surrounded by a ditch.
Archaeological Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of Artifact (archaeology), artifacts, architecture, biofact (archaeology), biofacts or ecofacts, ...
remains and local conditions bear out the description. If the migration from the Ohio Valley preceded the ''entrada'', these people may have been the proto-Quapaw. It is notable that the only chronicler of Indigenous heritage described this people as the Capaha. It is notable that this chronicler was often more accurate when recording tribal information. Regardless, Dr. Rankin hypothesized that the Capaha may have been Tunica based on limited evidence of a single name found in a later Portuguese account, for which the original cursive is not recorded. Archeological sites around 1300 in the region have produced pipes, hides, and other items which are strongly associated with an influx of Dhegiha people that would be the Quapaw. The first certain encounters with Quapaw by Europeans occurred more than 130 years later. In 1673, the Jesuit Father
Jacques Marquette Jacques Marquette, Society of Jesus, S.J. (; June 1, 1637 – May 18, 1675), sometimes known as Père Marquette or James Marquette, was a French Society of Jesus, Jesuit missionary who founded Michigan's first European settlement, Sault Ste. M ...
accompanied the French commander
Louis Jolliet Louis Jolliet (; September 21, 1645after May 1700) was a French-Canadian explorer known for his discoveries in North America. In 1673, Jolliet and Jacques Marquette, a Jesuit Catholic priest and missionary, were the first non-Natives to explore ...
in traveling down the Mississippi by canoe. He reportedly went to the villages of the ''Akansea'', who gave him warm welcome and listened with attention to his sermons, while he stayed with them a few days. In 1682, La Salle passed by their villages, then five in number, including one on the east bank of the Mississippi. Zenobius Membré, a Recollect father who accompanied the LaSalle expedition, planted a cross and attempted to convert the Native Americans to Christianity. La Salle negotiated a peace with the tribe and formally "claimed" the territory for
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
. The Quapaw were recorded as uniformly kind and friendly toward the French. While villages relocated in the area, four Quapaw villages were generally reported by Europeans along the Mississippi River in this early period. They corresponded in name and population to four sub-tribes still existing, listed as ', ', ', and '. The French transliterations were: Kappa, Ossoteoue, Touriman, and Tonginga.


Colonial era (1682–1803)

In 1686, at the request of the Quapaw, the French commander
Henri de Tonti Henri de Tonti (born Enrico Tonti; – September 1704) was an Italian-born French military officer and explorer who assisted René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle during the French colonization of the Americas from 1678 to 1686."A tour of M ...
built a post near the mouth of the Arkansas River, which was later known as the
Arkansas Post The Arkansas Post (; ), officially the Arkansas Post National Memorial, was the first European colonization of the Americas, European settlement located along the Mississippi River, in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain, and in the present-day U. ...
. This was the very first European settlement along the Mississippi River. This settlement was established at the Quapaw's design and request, primarily because the Quapaw wanted European firearms to use against their enemies who had already received them from the British. Tonti arranged for a resident
Jesuit The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
missionary A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thoma ...
to be assigned there, but apparently without result. About 1697, a
smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by Variola virus (often called Smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus '' Orthopoxvirus''. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (W ...
epidemic An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί ''epi'' "upon or above" and δῆμος ''demos'' "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of hosts in a given population within a short period of time. For example, in meningococcal infection ...
killed the greater part of the women and children of two villages. In 1727, the Jesuits, from their house in
New Orleans New Orleans (commonly known as NOLA or The Big Easy among other nicknames) is a Consolidated city-county, consolidated city-parish located along the Mississippi River in the U.S. state of Louisiana. With a population of 383,997 at the 2020 ...
, again took up the missionary work. The Quapaw were staunch allies of the French and backed them in regional conflicts. In 1729, the Quapaw allied with French colonists against the Natchez during the Natchez War, which was also referred to as the Natchez Revolt. This conflict ultimately involved multiple tribes allying with the French against the Natchez, ultimately resulting in the practical extermination of the Natchez tribe. The Quapaw also allied with France during the Chickasaw Wars, which spanned from 1721 to 1763. The French relocated the Arkansas Post upriver, both to avoid flooding and to maintain close proximity to the Quapaw who were also moving up the river for defensive purposes. After France was defeated by the British in the
Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War, 1756 to 1763, was a Great Power conflict fought primarily in Europe, with significant subsidiary campaigns in North America and South Asia. The protagonists were Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain and Kingdom of Prus ...
, it ceded its North American territories to Britain. This nation exchanged some territory with Spain, which took over "control" of Arkansas and other former French territory west of the Mississippi River. The Spanish built new forts to protect its valued trading post with the Quapaw. Relationships with the Spanish were more strained than they had been with France due to a variety of complications. Eventually the Spanish and the Quapaw would come into good terms however, and the Quapaw even signed a treaty during this time. During the early years of colonial rule, many of the ethnic French fur traders and ''
voyageurs Voyageurs (; ) were 18th- and 19th-century French and later French Canadians and others who transported furs by canoe at the peak of the North American fur trade. The emblematic meaning of the term applies to places (New France, including the ...
'' had an amicable relationship with the Quapaw, as they did with many other trading tribes. Many Quapaw women and French men cohabitated.
Pine Bluff, Arkansas Pine Bluff, officially the City of Pine Bluff, is the List of municipalities in Arkansas, tenth-most populous city in the U.S. state of Arkansas and the county seat of Jefferson County, Arkansas, Jefferson County. The population of the city wa ...
, was founded by Joseph Bonne, a man of Quapaw-French ancestry.


19th century

Shortly after the United States acquired the territory in 1803 by the
Louisiana Purchase The Louisiana Purchase () was the acquisition of the Louisiana (New France), territory of Louisiana by the United States from the French First Republic in 1803. This consisted of most of the land in the Mississippi River#Watershed, Mississipp ...
, it recorded the Quapaw as living in three villages on the south side of the Arkansas River about above Arkansas Post. In 1818. as part of a treaty negotiation, the U.S. government acknowledged the Quapaw as rightful owners of approximately , which included all of present-day Arkansas south and west of the
Arkansas River The Arkansas River is a major tributary of the Mississippi River. It generally flows to the east and southeast as it traverses the U.S. states of Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The river's source basin lies in Colorado, specifically ...
, as well as portions of
Louisiana Louisiana ( ; ; ) is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It borders Texas to the west, Arkansas to the north, and Mississippi to the east. Of the 50 U.S. states, it ranks 31st in area and 25 ...
,
Mississippi Mississippi ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Alabama to the east, the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Louisiana to the s ...
, and
Oklahoma Oklahoma ( ; Choctaw language, Choctaw: , ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Texas to the south and west, Kansas to the north, Missouri to the northea ...
from the Red River to beyond the Arkansas and east of the Mississippi. The treaty required the Quapaws to cede almost of this area to the U.S. government, giving the Quapaw title to between the Arkansas and the Saline in Southeast Arkansas. In exchange for the territory, the U.S. pledged $4,000 ($ in today's dollars) and an annual payment of $1,000 ($ in today's dollars). A transcription error in Congress later removed most of
Grant County, Arkansas Grant County, officially the County of Grant, is a county in the U.S. state of Arkansas. Its population was 17,958 at the 2020 United States census. The county seat is Sheridan. Grant County is included in the Little Rock-North Little Rock-Co ...
and part of
Saline County, Arkansas Saline County ( ) is a County (United States), county located in the U.S. state of Arkansas. As of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, the population was 123,416. Its county seat and largest city is Benton, Arkansas, Benton. Saline Cou ...
from the Quapaw claim. Under continued U.S. pressure, in 1824 they ceded this also, excepting occupied by the chief
Saracen upright 1.5, Late 15th-century German woodcut depicting Saracens ''Saracen'' ( ) was a term used both in Greek and Latin writings between the 5th and 15th centuries to refer to the people who lived in and near what was designated by the Rom ...
below Pine Bluff. They expected to incorporate with the
Caddo The Caddo people comprise the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma, a federally recognized tribe headquartered in Binger, Oklahoma. They speak the Caddo language. The Caddo Confederacy was a network of Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands, who ...
of
Louisiana Louisiana ( ; ; ) is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It borders Texas to the west, Arkansas to the north, and Mississippi to the east. Of the 50 U.S. states, it ranks 31st in area and 25 ...
, but were refused permission by the United States. Successive floods in the Caddo country near the Red River pushed many of the tribe toward starvation, and they wandered back to their old homes. ''Sarrasin'' (alternate spelling Saracen), their last chief before the removal, was a
Roman Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
and friend of the Lazarist missionaries (Congregation of the Missions), who had arrived in 1818. He died about 1830 and is buried adjoining St. Joseph's Church, Pine Bluff. A a memorial window in the church preserves his name. Fr. John M. Odin was the pioneer Lazarist missionary among the Quapaw; he later served as the Catholic Archbishop of New Orleans. In 1834, under another treaty and the federal policy of Indian Removal, the Quapaw were removed from the Mississippi valley areas to their present location in the northeast corner of Oklahoma, then
Indian Territory Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the Federal government of the United States, United States government for the relocation of Native Americans in the United States, ...
. In 1824, the Jesuits of
Maryland Maryland ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. It borders the states of Virginia to its south, West Virginia to its west, Pennsylvania to its north, and Delaware to its east ...
, under Father Charles Van Quickenborne, took up work among the native and migrant tribes of
Indian Territory Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the Federal government of the United States, United States government for the relocation of Native Americans in the United States, ...
(present-day
Kansas Kansas ( ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the west. Kansas is named a ...
and Oklahoma). In 1846, the Mission of St. Francis was established among the Osage, on
Neosho River The Neosho River is a tributary of the Arkansas River in eastern Kansas and northeastern Oklahoma in the United States. Its tributaries also drain portions of Missouri and Arkansas. The river is about long.U.S. Geological Survey. National ...
, by Fathers John Shoenmakers and John Bax. They extended their services to the Quapaw for some years.


20th century

The Quapaw, together with other nearby tribes, the
Miami Miami is a East Coast of the United States, coastal city in the U.S. state of Florida and the county seat of Miami-Dade County, Florida, Miami-Dade County in South Florida. It is the core of the Miami metropolitan area, which, with a populat ...
, Seneca, Wyandot and
Ottawa Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It is located in the southern Ontario, southern portion of the province of Ontario, at the confluence of the Ottawa River and the Rideau River. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Gatineau, Quebec, and forms the cor ...
, were served from the Mission of "Saint Mary of the Quapaws", at
Quapaw, Oklahoma Quapaw, officially the Town of Quapaw, is a town in Ottawa County, Oklahoma, United States, which serves as the capital of the Quapaw Nation. Located about northeast of Miami, it is part of the Joplin, Missouri metropolitan area. Incorpor ...
. Historians estimated their number at European encounter as 5000. The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' noted the people had suffered from high fatalities due to epidemics, wars, removals, and social disruption. It documented their numbers as 3200 in 1687, 1600 in 1750, 476 in 1843, and 307 in 1910, including people of
mixed-race The term multiracial people refers to people who are mixed with two or more races and the term multi-ethnic people refers to people who are of more than one ethnicities. A variety of terms have been used both historically and presently for mul ...
. The following passages are taken from the public domain ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', written early in the 20th century. It describes the Quapaw from the non-native perspective of that time.
A tribe now nearly extinct, but formerly one of the most important of the lower
Mississippi Mississippi ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Alabama to the east, the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Louisiana to the s ...
region, occupying several villages about the mouth of the
Arkansas Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the West South Central region of the Southern United States. It borders Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, and Oklahoma ...
, chiefly on the west (
Arkansas Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the West South Central region of the Southern United States. It borders Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, and Oklahoma ...
) side, with one or two at various periods on the east (
Mississippi Mississippi ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Alabama to the east, the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Louisiana to the s ...
) side of the Mississippi, and claiming the whole of the Arkansas River region up to the border of the territory held by the Osage in the north-western part of the state. They are of Siouan linguistic stock, speaking the same language, spoken also with dialectic variants, by the Osage and Kansa ( Kaw) in the south and by the
Omaha Omaha ( ) is the List of cities in Nebraska, most populous city in the U.S. state of Nebraska. It is located in the Midwestern United States along the Missouri River, about north of the mouth of the Platte River. The nation's List of United S ...
and
Ponca The Ponca people are a nation primarily located in the Great Plains of North America that share a common Ponca culture, history, and language, identified with two Indigenous nations: the Ponca Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma or the Ponca Tribe of ...
in
Nebraska Nebraska ( ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders South Dakota to the north; Iowa to the east and Missouri to the southeast, both across the Missouri River; Ka ...
. Their name properly is ''Ogaxpa'', which signifies "down-stream people", as distinguished from ''Umahan'' or Omaha, "up-stream people". To the
Illinois Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. It borders on Lake Michigan to its northeast, the Mississippi River to its west, and the Wabash River, Wabash and Ohio River, Ohio rivers to its ...
and other Algonquian tribes, they were known as 'Akansea', whence their French names of ''Akensas'' and ''Akansas''. According to concurrent tradition of the cognate tribes, the Quapaw and their kinsmen originally lived far east, possibly beyond the Alleghenies, and, pushing gradually westward, descended the
Ohio River The Ohio River () is a river in the United States. It is located at the boundary of the Midwestern and Southern United States, flowing in a southwesterly direction from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to its river mouth, mouth on the Mississippi Riv ...
– hence called by the Illinois the "river of the Akansea" – to its junction with the Mississippi, whence the Quapaw, then including the Osage and Kansa, descended to the mouth of the Arkansas, while the
Omaha Omaha ( ) is the List of cities in Nebraska, most populous city in the U.S. state of Nebraska. It is located in the Midwestern United States along the Missouri River, about north of the mouth of the Platte River. The nation's List of United S ...
, with the
Ponca The Ponca people are a nation primarily located in the Great Plains of North America that share a common Ponca culture, history, and language, identified with two Indigenous nations: the Ponca Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma or the Ponca Tribe of ...
, went up the
Missouri Missouri (''see #Etymology and pronunciation, pronunciation'') is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Ranking List of U.S. states and territories by area, 21st in land area, it border ...
.


Government

The Town of
Quapaw The Quapaw ( , Quapaw language, Quapaw: ) or Arkansas, officially the Quapaw Nation, is a List of federally recognized tribes in the United States, U.S. federally recognized tribe comprising about 6,000 citizens. Also known as the Ogáxpa or � ...
, Oklahoma serves as the
tribal The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide use of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. The definition is contested, in part due to conflict ...
capital Capital and its variations may refer to: Common uses * Capital city, a municipality of primary status ** Capital region, a metropolitan region containing the capital ** List of national capitals * Capital letter, an upper-case letter Econom ...
of the Quapaw Nation, which has a
tribal jurisdictional area Oklahoma Tribal Statistical Area is a statistical entity identified and delineated by federally recognized American Indian tribes in Oklahoma as part of the U.S. Census Bureau's 2010 Census and ongoing American Community Survey. Many of these ...
. The Quapaw people elect a tribal council and the tribal chairman, who serves a two-year term. The governing body of the tribe is outlined in the governing resolutions of the tribe, which were voted upon and approved in 1956 to create a written form of government. (Prior to 1956 the Quapaw Tribe operated on a chief system). The Chairman is Wena Supernaw. The Fourth of July weekend is also when the tribe convenes the annual general council meeting, during which important decisions regarding the policies and resolutions of the Quapaw tribe are voted upon by tribal members over the age of eighteen. The tribe operates a Tribal Court, Tribal Police Department and a Fire Department. The tribe also operates the Quapaw Emergency Operations Center (EOC) which handles both all fire and EMS calls within the reservation, and within Ottawa County. The Quapaw Nation Marshal Service has also cross deputized with many local entities, including Cherokee County Sheriff's Office, Ottawa County Sheriff's Office, Oklahoma Highway Patrol, Miami Police, Miami Tribe, Commerce Police, Quapaw Police, and Grand River Dam Authority. The tribe issues their own tribal vehicle tags for tribal members, and governmental vehicles. They also have their own housing authority, and tribal cemetery .''2011 Oklahoma Indian Nations Pocket Pictorial Directory''
, Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission, 2011: 30. Retrieved 28 Jan 2012.


Economy

The tribe owns two smoke shops and motor fuel outlets, known as the Quapaw C-Store and Downstream Q-Store. They also own and operate the Eagle Creek Golf Course and resort, located in
Loma Linda, Missouri Loma Linda is a town in Newton County, Missouri, United States. The population was 725 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Joplin, Missouri Metropolitan Statistical Area. History The village, a collection of homes and properties surrounding ...
. Their primary economic drivers have been their gaming casinos, established under federal and state law. The first two are both located in Quapaw: the Quapaw Casino and the Downstream Casino Resort. These have generated most of the revenue for the tribe, which they have used to support welfare, health and education of their members. In 2012 the Quapaw Tribe's annual economic impact in the region was measured at more than $225,000,000."Casino Pumps 1 Billion: Downstream Casino Economic Impact"
, ''Neosho Daily News'', 19 January 2013 (retrieved 8 February 2013)
In 2020 they completed a third casino, Saracen Casino Resort, located in
Pine Bluff, Arkansas Pine Bluff, officially the City of Pine Bluff, is the List of municipalities in Arkansas, tenth-most populous city in the U.S. state of Arkansas and the county seat of Jefferson County, Arkansas, Jefferson County. The population of the city wa ...
. It was the first purpose-built casino in the state. Constructed at a cost of $350 million, it will employ over 1,100 full-time staff. The Quapaw Nation was also the first tribal nation in the United States to open and operate a USDA certified meat processing plant located on tribal territory, owned and operated by a tribal nation. In the 20th century, the Quapaw leased some of their lands to European Americans, who developed them for industrial purposes. Before passage of environmental laws, toxic waste was deposited that has created long-term hazards. For instance, the Tar Creek Superfund site has been listed by the Environmental Protection Agency as requiring clean-up of environmental hazards. The Quapaw Nation took over cleanup of this superfund site in October of 2023, when it would become the first tribal nation in the united states to lead remedial operations at a property on a superfund site.


Demographics


Population

The Quapaw Nation has over 6,000 enrolled tribal members. Approximately 1,000 live in the state of Oklahoma. Many tribal members live on the reservation, on family allotments, and in the towns of
Quapaw, Oklahoma Quapaw, officially the Town of Quapaw, is a town in Ottawa County, Oklahoma, United States, which serves as the capital of the Quapaw Nation. Located about northeast of Miami, it is part of the Joplin, Missouri metropolitan area. Incorpor ...
, and in Commerce, Oklahoma. A number of tribal members live in
Miami, Oklahoma Miami ( ) is a city in and the county seat of Ottawa County, Oklahoma, United States, founded in 1891. Lead and zinc mining were established by 1918, causing the area's economy to boom. This area was part of Indian Territory. Miami is the capit ...
which is located just off the Quapaw reservation, on land that originally belonged to the Quapaw Nation before the Treaty of 1867. There are also a number of tribal members who live further away in Oklahoma, particularly in
Tulsa Tulsa ( ) is the second-most-populous city in the state of Oklahoma, after Oklahoma City, and the 48th-most-populous city in the United States. The population was 413,066 as of the 2020 census. It is the principal municipality of the Tul ...
and
Oklahoma City Oklahoma City (), officially the City of Oklahoma City, and often shortened to OKC, is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and List of municipalities in Oklahoma, most populous city of the U.S. state of Oklahoma. The county seat ...
. Many of the tribal members who live in those cities are often there because of their family seeking opportunities for employment and education, a process sometimes called
urbanization Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from Rural area, rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. ...
. Besides those living in Oklahoma, a significant number of tribal members live in nearby cities in Kansas and Missouri, with Baxter Springs and Joplin being especially close to the Quapaw reservation. A number of tribal members also live in urban areas such as
Chicago Chicago is the List of municipalities in Illinois, most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and in the Midwestern United States. With a population of 2,746,388, as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the List of Unite ...
and in
southern California Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and Cultural area, cultural List of regions of California, region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. Its densely populated coastal reg ...
as a result of the Indian Relocation Act of 1956 also known as Public law 959. Membership in the tribe is based on lineal descent.


Culture and society

The Quapaw people maintain traditions and culture which are present in all stages of life. The Quapaw people, culture, language, and land are all primarily centered today in Quapaw, OK. Native American people such as the Quapaw often view all four of these items as being interconnected and non-separable. Many Quapaw families carry on traditions which connect them to the countless generations of Quapaw who came before. In order to maintain and promote their way of life, some of these traditions take place in community events, and there are community classes and services which are offered by community members and by branches of the tribal government as well.


Tribal events and gatherings

The Quapaw people's primary annual event is a dance which is held during the Fourth of July weekend. This powwow was organized shortly after the
American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...
, It began as an annual gathering of local tribes with the Quapaw who had finally received rations. It continued as a traditional Quapaw dance and gathering hosted by various tribal families throughout the years. It was eventually hosted and funded by the Devils Promenade Indian Club. Ultimately the Quapaw Nation government would fund the gathering, and it is currently ran by an individual who is elected by the Quapaw people for their ability to organize the event, which includes traditional camping, gathering, and also features a large contest powwow which attracts participants from other tribes. 2022 was the 150th anniversary of this dance happening annually in the same general location."150th Annual Quapaw Powwow."
2022 (retrieved October 29, 2024)
Common features of this
powwow A powwow (also pow wow or pow-wow) is a gathering with dances held by many Native Americans in the United States, Native American and First Nations in Canada, First Nations communities. Inaugurated in 1923, powwows today are an opportunity fo ...
include
gourd dance The Gourd Dance is a Kiowa dance and song tradition that has become popular at modern powwows in southwestern Oklahoma. Origin legends Many Native Americans dispute the origin of the legend of the Gourd Dance. A Kiowa story recounts the tale of a ...
, war dance, stomp dance, and 49s. Other activities take place such as traditional Quapaw games including Indian football, handgame, traditional Quapaw footraces, Quapaw traditional dinners, turkey dance, Indian Dice, and other dances such as Quapaw Dance, and dances from other area tribes. The Quapaw Nation also hosts additional events throughout the year, one of the largest events besides the annual powwow is the Quapaw Fall Gathering. This gathering began in 2020 as a way to have a social distanced annual gathering, as the July 4th event had been postponed due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Following this it has grown into an annual social event for the Quapaw people featuring historical and cultural discussions, as well as traditional games, and traditional foods. In 2024, the Quapaw Nation Culture Division in partnership with the Arkansas State Archives was able to feature a display of the 1824 Quapaw Treaty with the United States, on the 200th anniversary of the signing of this treaty. In addition to the treaty viewing, the event also featured a speeches, Quapaw Jeopardy, a Quapaw Nation Art Competition, a 5k and fun run, and a traditional Quapaw foot race, hand game, food, and dice game.


Cultural classes

The Quapaw host cultural events throughout the year, which are primarily held at the tribal museum. These include Indian dice games, traditional singing, and classes in traditional arts, such as finger weaving, shawl making, and flute making. In addition, Quapaw language classes are held there. The Quapaw Nation also hosts also efforts to maintain their culture. A significant manner of engaging Quapaw youth is the Camp Quapaw, an annual summer program that brings together Quapaw youth and other area community members.


Language

The traditional
Quapaw language Quapaw, or Arkansas, is a Siouan language of the Quapaw people, originally from a region in present-day Arkansas. It is now spoken in Oklahoma. It is similar to the other Dhegihan languages: Kansa, Omaha, Osage and Ponca. Written document ...
is part of the
Dhegiha The Dhegihan languages are a group of Siouan languages that include Kansa– Osage, Omaha–Ponca, and Quapaw. Their historical region included parts of the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys, the Great Plains, and southeastern North America. T ...
branch of the Siouan language family. Quapaw was well documented in fieldnotes and publications from many individuals, including George Izard in 1827, Lewis F. Hadley in 1882, 19th-century
linguist Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), Morphology (linguistics), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds ...
James Owen Dorsey, Frank T. Siebert in 1940, and linguist Robert Rankin in the 1970s. In the 21st century, there are few remaining native speakers. In the early 20th century, an account noted that the Dhegiha language, a branch of Siouan including the "dialects" of the Omaha, Ponca, Osage, Kansa, and Quapaw, has received more extended study. Rev. J.O. Dorsey published material about it under the auspices of the
Bureau of American Ethnology The Bureau of American Ethnology (or BAE, originally, Bureau of Ethnology) was established in 1879 by an act of Congress for the purpose of transferring archives, records and materials relating to the Indians of North America from the Departme ...
, now part of the
Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums, Education center, education and Research institute, research centers, created by the Federal government of the United States, U.S. government "for the increase a ...
. Other efforts at language preservation and revitalization are being undertaken. In 2011 the Quapaw participated in the first annual Dhegiha Gathering. The
Osage language Osage (; Osage: ''Wažáže ie'') is a Siouan language spoken by the people of the Osage Nation in northern Oklahoma. Their original territory was in the present-day Ohio River Valley, which they shared with other Siouan language nations. Slow ...
program hosted and organized the gathering, held at the Quapaw tribe's Downstream Casino. Language-learning techniques and other issues were discussed and taught in workshops at the conference among the five cognate tribes. The 2012 Annual Dhegiha Gathering was also held at Downstream Casino. To revive the language, the tribe is conducting classes in Quapaw at the tribal museum. An online audio lexicon of the Quapaw language was created by editing old recordings of first language speakers speaking the language. In 2024 the Quapaw Nation Culture Division formed a Language Department. This resulted in the hiring of a Language Department Director and the re-initiation of community language classes and services.


In popular culture

* The 2009 documentary '' Tar Creek,'' about the Tar Creek Superfund Site located on Quapaw tribal lands, explored what at one time was considered to be the worst environmental disaster in the country. The film discusses the alleged racism of environmental and governmental practices that led to the neglect and lack of regulation that produced the hazards of this site. It is credited with causing the lead poisoning of a high percentage of children. * In 2018, Infinite Productions produced a documentary titled ''The Pride of the Ogahpah'', about the development of the Downstream Casino Resort, which is operated by The Quapaw Nation.


Notable people

* Louis Ballard, (Quapaw/Cherokee, 1931–2007) composer, artist, and educator * Betty Gaedtke, traditional potter *
Victor Griffin Victor Gilbert Benjamin Griffin (Dean Griffin) (24 May 1924 – 11 January 2017) was a Church of Ireland (Anglican) priest, theologian and author and a strongly liberal voice in Irish public life. Born in Carnew, County Wicklow, Griffin was edu ...
( 1873–1958), chief, interpreter, and peyote roadman * Barbara Kyser-Collier, tribal governmental figure * Ardina Moore (Quapaw/Osage), language teacher, regalia maker/textile artist *
Saracen upright 1.5, Late 15th-century German woodcut depicting Saracens ''Saracen'' ( ) was a term used both in Greek and Latin writings between the 5th and 15th centuries to refer to the people who lived in and near what was designated by the Rom ...
, war chief and recipient of a presidential medal * Tall Chief ( 1840–1918), chief, peyote roadman * Guy Barker (politician) Quapaw-American Politician * Joseph Tali Byrd Quapaw-Cherokee Politician


See also

* Mitchigamea * Quapaw Indian Agency * USS ''Quapaw'' (AT-110)


References


External links

*
Quapaw Indian Tribe History
at
Access Genealogy Access Genalogy is a genealogy website. One specific specialty it has is "the 1835 Cherokee census, listing Cherokees who lived east of the Mississippi during that year." One reviewer's one-sentence summary is: "This has a lot to offer for a fr ...

Quapaw Language
official tribal sanctioned site with language information, words, audio clips, and source information
Quapaw Tribal Ancestry
official tribal sanctioned site with genealogy information, pictures, and stories {{DEFAULTSORT:Quapaw American Indian reservations in Oklahoma Dhegiha Siouan peoples Federally recognized tribes in the United States Native American tribes in Arkansas Native American tribes in Oklahoma Arkansas placenames of Native American origin Oklahoma placenames of Native American origin