The Pyralidae, commonly called pyralid moths, snout moths or grass moths, are a

family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) or lepidopterans is an order (biology), order of winged insects which includes butterflies and moths. About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera have been described, representing 10% of the total described species of living organ ...

in the

ditrysia Ditrysia is a clade of lepidopterans that contains both butterflies and a majority of moth species. They are named for the fact that the female has two distinct sexual openings: one for mating, and the other for laying eggs. About 98% of know ...

superfamily SUPERFAMILY is a database and search platform of structural and functional annotation for all proteins and genomes. It classifies amino acid sequences into known structural domains, especially into SCOP superfamilies. Domains are functional, str ...

Pyraloidea The Pyraloidea (pyraloid moths or snout moths) are a moth superfamily containing about 16,000 described species worldwide, and probably at least as many more remain to be described. They are generally fairly small moths, and as such, they have ...

. In many (particularly older) classifications, the

grass moth Crambidae comprises the grass moth family of lepidopterans. They are variable in appearance, with the nominal subfamily Crambinae (grass moths) taking up closely folded postures on grass stems where they are inconspicuous, while other subfamilies ...

s (Crambidae) are included in the Pyralidae as a

subfamily In biological classification, a subfamily (Latin: ', plural ') is an auxiliary (intermediate) taxonomic rank, next below family but more inclusive than genus. Standard nomenclature rules end botanical subfamily names with "-oideae", and zo ...

, making the combined group one of the largest families in the Lepidoptera. The latest review by Eugene G. Munroe and

Maria Alma Solis Maria Alma Solis (born February 9, 1956) is an entomologist at the Systematic Entomology Laboratory (SEL) of the Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Early life Maria Alma Solis was born on February 9, 1956, ...

retain the

Crambidae Crambidae comprises the grass moth family of lepidopterans. They are variable in appearance, with the nominal subfamily Crambinae (grass moths) taking up closely folded postures on grass stems where they are inconspicuous, while other subfamilies ...

as a full family of

. The

wingspan The wingspan (or just span) of a bird or an airplane is the distance from one wingtip to the opposite wingtip. For example, the Boeing 777–200 has a wingspan of , and a wandering albatross (''Diomedea exulans'') caught in 1965 had a wingsp ...

s for small and medium-sized species are usually between with variable morphological features. It is a diverse group, with more than 6,000 species described worldwide, and more than 600 species in America north of Mexico, comprising the third largest moth family in North America. At least 42 species have been recorded from North Dakota in the subfamilies of Pyralidae.

Relationship with humans

Most of these small moths are inconspicuous. Many are economically important pests, including

waxworm Waxworms are the caterpillar larvae of wax moths, which belong to the family (biology), family Pyralidae (snout moths). Two closely related species are commercially bred – the lesser wax moth (''Achroia grisella'') and the Galleria mell ...

s, which are the

caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder ...

larva A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase ...

e of the greater (''

Galleria mellonella ''Galleria mellonella'', the greater wax moth or honeycomb moth, is a moth of the family Pyralidae. ''G. mellonella'' is found throughout the world. It is one of two species of wax moths, with the other being the lesser wax moth. ''G. mellonella' ...

'') and lesser (''

Achroia grisella The lesser wax moth (''Achroia grisella'') is a small moth of the snout moth family (Pyralidae) that belongs to the subfamily Galleriinae. The species was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1794. Adults are about 0.5 inches (13 ...

'') wax moths (

Galleriinae The Galleriinae are a subfamily of snout moths (family (biology), family Pyralidae) and occur essentially worldwide, in some cases aided by involuntary introduction by humans. This subfamily includes the wax moths, whose caterpillars (waxworms) a ...

). They are natively pests of

beehive A beehive is an enclosed structure which houses honey bees, subgenus '' Apis.'' Honey bees live in the beehive, raising their young and producing honey as part of their seasonal cycle. Though the word ''beehive'' is used to describe the nest of ...

s, but are bred indoors in enormous numbers as

live food Live food is living animals used as food for other carnivorous or omnivorous animals kept in captivity; in other words, small preys (such as insects, small fish or rodents) fed alive to larger predators kept either in a zoo or as a pet. Live ...

for small

reptile Reptiles, as commonly defined, are a group of tetrapods with an ectothermic metabolism and Amniotic egg, amniotic development. Living traditional reptiles comprise four Order (biology), orders: Testudines, Crocodilia, Squamata, and Rhynchocepha ...

and

bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class (biology), class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the Oviparity, laying of Eggshell, hard-shelled eggs, a high Metabolism, metabolic rate, a fou ...

pet A pet, or companion animal, is an animal kept primarily for a person's company or entertainment rather than as a working animal, livestock, or a laboratory animal. Popular pets are often considered to have attractive/ cute appearances, inte ...

s and similar animals. They are also used as

fishing bait Fishing bait is any bait (luring substance), luring substance used specifically to attract and fishing, catch fish, typically when angling with a fish hook, hook and fishing line, line. There are generally two types of baits used in angling: '' ...

for

trout Trout (: trout) is a generic common name for numerous species of carnivorous freshwater ray-finned fishes belonging to the genera '' Oncorhynchus'', ''Salmo'' and ''Salvelinus'', all of which are members of the subfamily Salmoninae in the ...

fishing. Other notable snout moth pests relevant for their larval hosts include: * Alligatorweed stem borer (''

Arcola malloi ''Arcola malloi'' (formerly ''Vogtia malloi'') is a species of snout moth known as the alligator weed stem borer. It is used as an agent of biological pest control against the noxious aquatic plant known as alligator weed (''Alternanthera philo ...

'':

Phycitinae The Phycitinae are a subfamily of snout moths (family (biology), family Pyralidae). Even though the Pyralidae subfamilies are all quite diverse, Phycitinae stand out even by standards of their family: with over 600 genera considered valid and mor ...

) –

biological control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, whether pest animals such as insects and mites, weeds, or pathogens affecting animals or plants by using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or o ...

of alligator weed (''

Alternanthera philoxeroides ''Alternanthera philoxeroides'', commonly referred to as alligator weed, is a native species to the temperate regions of South America, which includes Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Argentina alone hosts around 27 species that fall with ...

''). * Almond moth ('' Cadra cautella'': Phycitinae) – pest of stored

cereal A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize ( Corn). Edible grains from other plant families, ...

s and dry fruit; now introduced almost worldwide. * Cacao moth, tobacco moth, warehouse moth (''

Ephestia elutella ''Ephestia elutella'', the cacao moth, tobacco moth or warehouse moth, is a small moth of the family Pyralidae. It is probably native to Europe, but has been transported widely, even to Australia. A subspecies is ''E. e. pterogrisella''. The win ...

'': Phycitinae) – pest of stored dry vegetable products; Europe, introduced to some other regions (e.g. Australia). * Dried fruit moth (''

Cadra calidella ''Cadra calidella'', the dried fruit or date moth, is a species of snout moth in the genus ''Cadra'' and commonly mistaken for the species '' Cadra figulilella.'' It thrives in warmer conditions and is found primarily in Mediterranean countries, ...

'':

) * '' Etiella behrii'' (Phycitinae) – pest of stored

legume Legumes are plants in the pea family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consum ...

s; Southeast Asia and Australia * " Flour moths" – pests of stored grains, spices, flour, and similar dry vegetable products; now introduced almost worldwide. ** Indian mealmoth (''

Plodia interpunctella The Indianmeal moth (''Plodia interpunctella''), also spelled Indian meal moth and Indian-meal moth, is a Pyraloidea, pyraloid moth of the family (biology), family Pyralidae. Alternative common names are hanger-downers, weevil moth, pantry mot ...

'': Phycitinae) ** Mediterranean flour moth, Indian flour moth (''

Ephestia kuehniella The Mediterranean flour moth or mill moth (''Ephestia kuehniella'') is a moth of the family Pyralidae. It is a common pest of cereal grains, especially flour. This moth is found throughout the world, especially in countries with temperate climat ...

'': Phycitinae) * Grease moth (''

Aglossa pinguinalis ''Aglossa pinguinalis'', the large tabby or grease moth, is a moth in the subfamily Pyralinae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae''. The dark-hued larvae feed on animal fats. Descri ...

'':

Pyralinae The Pyralinae are the typical subfamily of snout moths (family (biology), family Pyralidae) and occur essentially worldwide, in some cases aided by involuntary introduction by humans. They are rather rare in the Americas however, and their divers ...

) – pest of

suet Suet ( ) is the raw, hard fat of beef, lamb or mutton found around the loins and kidneys. Suet has a melting point of between and solidification (or congelation) between . Its high smoke point makes it ideal for deep frying and pastr ...

and other oily food. * Lesser cornstalk borer (''

Elasmopalpus lignosellus ''Elasmopalpus lignosellus'', the lesser cornstalk borer, was described by Philipp Christoph Zeller in 1848. It is found from the southern United States to Mexico, Central America and South America (Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Argentina an ...

'': Phycitinae) – stalk pest of

corn Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout Poaceae, grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples of Mexico, indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago ...

(''Zea mays''); tropical and subtropical Americas, introduced to the Hawaiian Islands. * Locust bean moth ('' Ectomyelois ceratoniae'': Phycitinae) * Mahogany webworm ('' Macalla thyrsisalis'':

Epipaschiinae The Epipaschiinae are a subfamily of snout moths (family Pyralidae). More than 720 species are known today, which are found mainly in the tropics and subtropics. Some occur in temperate regions, but the subfamily is apparently completely absent f ...

) – defoliator pest of mahogany trees (''Swietenia'');

Neotropics The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone. Definition In biogeog ...

. * Meal moth (''

Pyralis farinalis ''Pyralis farinalis'', the meal moth, is a cosmopolitan moth of the family Pyralidae. Its larvae (caterpillars) are pests of certain stored foods, namely milled plant products. It is the type species of the genus '' Pyralis'', and by extensio ...

'': Pyralinae) – pest of stored grain, flour and other cereals; now introduced almost worldwide. * Pear fruit borer (''

Pempelia heringii ''Pempelia heringii'', the pear fruit borer, is a moth of the family Pyralidae found in Japan and China and also reported from Hawaii Hawaii ( ; ) is an island U.S. state, state of the United States, in the Pacific Ocean about south ...

'': Phycitinae) – pest of apple and pear fruits; East Asia, introduced to the Hawaiian Islands. * Pine webworm ('' Pococera robustella'': Epipaschiinae) – defoliator pest of

pine A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. ''World Flora Online'' accepts 134 species-rank taxa (119 species and 15 nothospecies) of pines as cu ...

s (''Pinus''); North America east of Great Lakes region. * Raisin moth (''

Cadra figulilella ''Cadra figulilella'', the raisin moth, is a moth of the family Pyralidae. The raisin moth is known most commonly as a pest that feeds on dried fruits, such as the raisin and date. It covers a range that includes much of the world, primarily sit ...

'': Phycitinae) – pests of stored dry fruit; now introduced almost worldwide. * Rice moth ('' Corcyra cephalonica'': Galleriinae) – pest of stored grain, flour and other cereals. * South American cactus moth (''

Cactoblastis cactorum ''Cactoblastis cactorum'', the cactus moth, South American cactus moth or nopal moth, is native to Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and southern Brazil. It is one of five species in the genus ''Cactoblastis'' that inhabit South America, where many par ...

'': Phycitinae) – biological control of prickly pears (''Opuntia''). * Southern pine coneworm, "pitch moth" ('' Dioryctria amatella'': Phycitinae) – cone and shoot pest of pines (''Pinus''); southern North America. * Stored nut moth (''

Paralipsa gularis ''Paralipsa gularis'', the stored nut moth, is a moth of the family Pyralidae. It is found in Southeast Asia and is an introduced species in Western Europe. The wingspan is 21–32 mm. The caterpillars feed on stored nuts and seeds like wa ...

'': Galleriinae) – pest of stored nuts and

drupe In botany, a drupe (or stone fruit) is a type of fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the ''pip'' (UK), ''pit'' (US), ''stone'', or ''pyrena'') of hardened endocarp with a seed ...

s; Southeast Asia, introduced to Western Europe. * Sunflower moth ('' Homoeosoma nebulella'': Phycitinae) – pest of

sunflower seed A sunflower seed is a seed from a sunflower (''Helianthus annuus''). There are three types of commonly used sunflower seeds: linoleic (most common), high oleic, and sunflower oil seeds. Each variety has its own unique levels of monounsatura ...

s; Europe and surrounding regions. The European corn borer (''

Ostrinia nubilalis The European corn borer (''Ostrinia nubilalis''), also known as the European corn worm or European high-flyer, is a moth of the family Crambidae. It is a pest of grain, particularly maize (''Zea mays''). The insect is native to Europe, origina ...

'') and southern cornstalk borer ('' Diatraea crambidoides''), formerly considered snout moths, are placed in the

which, as noted above, are usually regarded as a separate family today.

Systematics

Five subfamilies are generally recognized in the Pyralidae today. The

Acentropinae Acentropinae is a fairly small subfamily of the lepidopteran family Crambidae, the crambid snout moths. Species of this subfamily are exclusively found in wetlands and aquatic habitats. Systematics In modern treatments, the former subfa ...

(= Nymphulinae), occasionally still placed here, do indeed seem to belong in the Crambidae. The snout moth subfamilies are, listed in the presumed

phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics () is the study of the evolutionary history of life using observable characteristics of organisms (or genes), which is known as phylogenetic inference. It infers the relationship among organisms based on empirical dat ...

sequence from the most primitive to the most advanced: *

Chrysauginae The Chrysauginae are a subfamily of snout moths (family Pyralidae). They are primarily Neotropical and include about 400 described species. Description and ecology The subfamily includes the sloth moths (genera '' Cryptoses'', '' Bradypodicola' ...

(including Bradypodicolinae, Semniidae) – about 400 species occurring predominantly in the

Neotropical The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone. Definition In biogeogra ...

region. Larvae typically feed on plants, but some have more unusual feeding habits. The latter include for example some

myrmecophilous thumb , Myrmecophilous aphids being tended by ants Myrmecophily ( , ) consists of positive, mutualistic, interspecies associations between ants and a variety of other organisms, such as plants, other arthropods, and fungi. It may also incl ...

species, as well as a number of sloth moths which are dependent on

sloth Sloths are a Neotropical realm, Neotropical group of xenarthran mammals constituting the suborder Folivora, including the extant Arboreal locomotion, arboreal tree sloths and extinct terrestrial ground sloths. Noted for their slowness of move ...

s for their entire life cycle. Most Chrysauginae larvae have a sclerotised ring around seta SD1 of the

metathorax The metathorax is the posterior of the three segments in the thorax of an insect, and bears the third pair of legs. Its principal sclerites ( exoskeletal plates) are the metanotum (dorsal), the metasternum (ventral), and the metapleuron (lateral ...

. *

(including Macrothecinae) – about 300 species worldwide. The males of galleriine moths have a gnathos almost or completely reduced, the pupae have a prominent dorsal median ridge on the thorax and abdomen, and most larvae have a sclerotised ring around seta SD1 of the first abdominal segment. *

(including Endotrichinae, Hypotiinae) – rather diverse in the

Old World The "Old World" () is a term for Afro-Eurasia coined by Europeans after 1493, when they became aware of the existence of the Americas. It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia in the Eastern Hemisphere, previously ...

; a lesser number of the roughly 900 species occurs elsewhere. The females of almost all Pyralinae except ''

Cardamyla ''Cardamyla'' is a genus of snout moths. It was described by Francis Walker in 1859 and is known from Australia. Species * ''Cardamyla carinentalis ''Cardamyla carinentalis'' is a species of snout moth in the genus '' Cardamyla''. It was desc ...

'' and ''

Embryoglossa ''Embryoglossa'' is a genus of snout moths. It was described by Warren in 1896, and is known from Nigeria, Madagascar, and India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and depe ...

'' are recognizable by the very short

ductus bursae In anatomy and physiology, a duct is a circumscribed channel leading from an exocrine gland or organ. Types of ducts Examples include: Duct system As ducts travel from the acinus which generates the fluid to the target, the ducts become large ...

of their

genital A sex organ, also known as a reproductive organ, is a part of an organism that is involved in sexual reproduction. Sex organs constitute the primary sex characteristics of an organism. Sex organs are responsible for producing and transporting ...

s. *

(including Pococerinae) – over 550 described species in the tropical and temperate regions (except Europe). Larvae are leaf rollers, leaf tiers, or leaf miners. Some species are minor pests of a few commercial crops. Epipaschiinae are generally hard to recognize, except in the case of adult males which have a few characteristic traits, such as the upturned and pointed third segment of the labial palps and usually a scaly projection from the antenna base. The larvae lack any stereotyped seta sclerotisations. *

(including Anerastiinae, Peoriinae) – probably the most difficult group of Pyraloidea in terms of identification and classification. They comprise more than 600 genera and about 4000 species found all over the world. The characteristic trait of the caterpillars is a

sclerotised Sclerotin is a component of the cuticle of various Arthropoda, most familiarly insects. It is formed by cross-linking members of particular classes of protein molecules, a biochemical process called sclerotization, a form of tanning in which q ...

area encircling the base of seta SD1 on the

mesothorax The mesothorax is the middle of the three segments of the thorax of hexapods, and bears the second pair of legs. Its principal sclerites (exoskeletal plates) are the mesonotum (dorsal), the mesosternum ( ventral), and the mesopleuron (lateral) ...

, while the adult females have – like the males of Pyralidae in general do – a frenulum consisting of a single bristle which in turn is composed of multiple acanthae.

Problematic genera

In addition to those assigned to the tribes above, several genera of (presumed) Pyralidae are not firmly placed in this arrangement, but are ''

incertae sedis or is a term used for a taxonomy (biology), taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Alternatively, such groups are frequently referred to as "enigmatic taxa". In the system of open nomenclature, uncertainty ...

''. Some may be very basal lineages which stand outside the main snout moth radiations, but given the changing circumscription of the Pyralidae, some are likely to be placed outside this group in its modern meaning, either in the Crambidae or in other lineages of basal

Obtectomera The Obtectomera is a clade of macro-moths and butterflies, comprising over 100,000 species in at least 12 Superfamily (zoology), superfamilies. This clade was initially defined by a pupal stage with the four anterior abdominal segments fused and ...

. Some may even belong to more ancient moth lineages, such as the

Alucitoidea Aluctoidea is the superfamily of many-plumed and false plume moths. These small moths are most easily recognized by their wings. These each consist of many (typically more than 3) narrow strips of membrane around the major veins, instead of a co ...

Pterophoroidea The Pterophoridae or plume moths are a family of Lepidoptera with unusually modified wings, giving them the shape of a narrow winged airplane. Though they belong to the Apoditrysia like the larger moths and the butterflies, unlike these they are ...

. Finally, some of these (usually little-studied) genera possibly are

junior synonym In taxonomy, the scientific classification of living organisms, a synonym is an alternative scientific name for the accepted scientific name of a taxon. The botanical and zoological codes of nomenclature treat the concept of synonymy differently. ...

s of genera described earlier. These genera are in the unranked category of the family Pyralidae. The genera in question are: * '' Apocabimoides'' Neunzig & Goodson, 1992 * '' Ardjuna'' Roesler & Küppers, 1979 * '' Cabimoides'' Neunzig & Goodson, 1992 * '' Cryptophycita'' Roesler & Küppers, 1979 * '' Cryptozophera'' Roesler & Küppers, 1979 * '' Delcina'' Clarke, 1986 (Phycitinae?) * '' Eupassadena'' Neunzig & Goodson, 1992 * '' Gomezmenoria'' Agenjo, 1966 * '' Gunungodes'' Roesler & Küppers, 1981 * '' Indocabnia'' Roesler & Küppers, 1981 * '' Inverina'' Neunzig & Goodson, 1992 * ''

Kasyapa Kashyapa (, ) is a revered Vedic sage of Hinduism., Quote: "Kasyapa (Rudra),(Vedic Seer)..." He is one of the Saptarishis, the seven ancient sages of the ''Rigveda''. Kashyapa is the most ancient and venerated rishi, along with the other Sa ...

'' Roesler & Küppers, 1981 * ''

Kaurava ''Kaurava'' is a Sanskrit term which refers to descendants of Kuru, a legendary king of India who is the ancestor of many of the characters of the epic ''Mahabharata''. Usually, the term is used for the 100 sons of King Dhritarashtra and his ...

'' Roesler & Küppers, 1981 * ''

Kumbhakarna Kumbhakarna (Sanskrit: कुम्भकर्ण, lit. ''pot-eared'') is a powerful rakshasa and younger brother of Ravana from the Hinduism, Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. Despite his gigantic size and appetite, he is described as a virtuous c ...

'' Roesler & Küppers, 1981 * '' Merangiria'' Roesler & Küppers, 1979 * '' Ohigginsia'' Neunzig & Goodson, 1992 * '' Pseudopassadena'' Neunzig & Goodson, 1992 * '' Psorozophera'' Roesler & Küppers, 1979 These genera have been placed in the Pyralidae when these were still circumscribed ''

sensu lato ''Sensu'' is a Latin word meaning "in the sense of". It is used in a number of fields including biology, geology, linguistics, semiotics, and law. Commonly it refers to how strictly or loosely an expression is used in describing any particular co ...

'' and are sometimes still treated thus, but actually they seem to belong in the Crambidae (see also '' Micronix'' and ''

Tanaobela ''Tanaobela'' is a genus of moths in the superfamily Pyraloidea containing only one species, ''Tanaobela chrysochlora'', which is found in Australia, where it has been recorded from Queensland. Its affiliations are disputed. The wingspan T ...

''): * '' Alphacrambus'' Bassi, 1995 * '' Peniculimius'' Schoute, 1994 * '' Steneromene'' Gaskin, 1986 * ''

Thopeutis ''Thopeutis'' is a grass moth genus (family Crambidae) of subfamily Crambinae, tribe Haimbachiini. Some authors have placed it in the snout moth The Pyralidae, commonly called pyralid moths, snout moths or grass moths, are a family (biology), ...

'' Hübner, 1818 * ''

Yoshiyasua ''Yoshiyasua'' is a grass moth genus (family Crambidae) of subfamily Musotiminae. Some authors have placed it in the snout moth family (Pyralidae), where all grass moths were once also included, but this seems to be in error. The genus contains o ...

'' (formerly '' Melanochroa'' Yohiyasu, 1985 ''nec'' Roeder, 1886:

preoccupied In biology, a homonym is a name for a taxon that is identical in spelling to another such name, that belongs to a different taxon. The rule in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature is that the first such name to be published is the s ...

)

References

External links

* Solis, M. Alma (2007)
"Phylogenetic studies and modern classification of the Pyraloidea (Lepidoptera)"
''Revista Colombiana de Entomología''. 33 (1): 1–8. * {{Authority control Pyralidae Moth families