Ptilothrix Nemoralis
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''Ptilothrix'' is a
genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
within the
tribe The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide use of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. The definition is contested, in part due to conflict ...
Emphorini The Emphorini are a tribe of apid bees. Genera *'' Alepidosceles'' *'' Diadasia'' *'' Diadasina'' **'' Diadasina'' (''Diadasina'') **'' Diadasina'' ('' Leptometriella'') *'' Meliphilopsis'' *'' Melitoma'' *'' Melitomella'' *'' Ptilothrix ...
of the
family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...
Apidae Apidae is the largest family within the superfamily Apoidea, containing at least 5700 species of bees. The family includes some of the most commonly seen bees, including bumblebees and honey bees, but also includes stingless bees (also used for ...
(
bumblebee A bumblebee (or bumble bee, bumble-bee, or humble-bee) is any of over 250 species in the genus ''Bombus'', part of Apidae, one of the bee families. This genus is the only Extant taxon, extant group in the tribe Bombini, though a few extinct r ...
s, euglossines,
honeybee A honey bee (also spelled honeybee) is a eusocial flying insect within the genus ''Apis'' of the bee clade, all native to mainland Afro-Eurasia. After bees spread naturally throughout Africa and Eurasia, humans became responsible for the c ...
s,
stingless bee Stingless bees (SB), sometimes called stingless honey bees or simply meliponines, are a large group of bees (from about 462 to 552 described species), comprising the Tribe (biology), tribe Meliponini (or subtribe Meliponina according to other aut ...
s). Bees of this genus can range from . ''Ptilothrix'' species are solitary, ground-nesting bees. These bees have especially prominent hairs in the scopae of their hind legs, to help gather pollen to provision their nests. ''Ptilothrix'' species specialize on certain families of plants for their pollen, including the families
Malvaceae Malvaceae (), or the mallows, is a family of flowering plants estimated to contain 244 genera with 4225 known species. Well-known members of economic importance include Theobroma cacao, cacao, Cola (plant), cola, cotton, okra, Hibiscus sabdariffa, ...
,
Convolvulaceae Convolvulaceae (), commonly called the bindweed, bindweeds or morning glory, morning glories, is a Family (biology), family of about 60 genera and more than 1,650 species. These species are primarily herbaceous vines, but also include trees, sh ...
,
Onagraceae The Onagraceae are a family of flowering plants known as the willowherb family or evening primrose family. They include about 650 species of herbs, shrubs, and treesCactaceae A cactus (: cacti, cactuses, or less commonly, cactus) is a member of the plant family Cactaceae (), a family of the order Caryophyllales comprising about 127 genera with some 1,750 known species. The word ''cactus'' derives, through Latin, ...
,
Pontederiaceae Pontederiaceae is a Family (biology), family of flowering plants. The APG IV system of 2016 (unchanged from the APG III system of 2009, the APG II system of 2003 and the APG system of 1998) places the family in the order Commelinales, in the co ...
, and
Asteraceae Asteraceae () is a large family (biology), family of flowering plants that consists of over 32,000 known species in over 1,900 genera within the Order (biology), order Asterales. The number of species in Asteraceae is rivaled only by the Orchi ...
. The genus is found in the New World, with species ranging across the Americas.


Species

The genus contains these species:Ptilothrix
Animal Diversity Web The Animal Diversity Web (ADW) is a non-profit group that hosts an online database site that collects natural history, classification, species characteristics, conservation biology, and distribution information on species of animals. The website ...
,
University of Michigan The University of Michigan (U-M, U of M, or Michigan) is a public university, public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest institution of higher education in the state. The University of Mi ...
Museum of Zoology.
*'' Ptilothrix albidohirta'' *'' Ptilothrix bombiformis'' (hibiscus bee, rose-mallow bee, eastern digger bee) *'' Ptilothrix chacoensis'' *'' Ptilothrix concolor'' *'' Ptilothrix corrientium'' *''
Ptilothrix fructifera ''Ptilothrix'' is a genus within the tribe (biology), tribe Emphorini of the Family (biology), family Apidae (bumblebees, euglossines, honeybees, stingless bees). Bees of this genus can range from . ''Ptilothrix'' species are solitary, ground-nes ...
'' *'' Ptilothrix fuliginosa'' *'' Ptilothrix heterochroa'' *'' Ptilothrix lynchii'' *'' Ptilothrix nemoralis'' *''
Ptilothrix nigerrima ''Ptilothrix'' is a genus within the tribe Emphorini of the family Apidae (bumblebees, euglossines, honeybees, stingless bees). Bees of this genus can range from . ''Ptilothrix'' species are solitary, ground-nesting bees. These bees have especia ...
'' *''
Ptilothrix plumata ''Ptilothrix'' is a genus within the tribe Emphorini of the family Apidae (bumblebees, euglossines, honeybees, stingless bees). Bees of this genus can range from . ''Ptilothrix'' species are solitary, ground-nesting bees. These bees have especia ...
'' *'' Ptilothrix relata'' *'' Ptilothrix scalaris'' *'' Ptilothrix sumichrasti'' *'' Ptilothrix tricolor'' *'' Ptilothrix vulpihirta''


Life History

Bees of the genus ''Ptilothrix'' are solitary. Unlike
honeybees A honey bee (also spelled honeybee) is a eusocial flying insect within the genus ''Apis'' of the bee clade, all native to mainland Afro-Eurasia. After bees spread naturally throughout Africa and Eurasia, humans became responsible for the cur ...
or other
eusocial Eusociality ( Greek 'good' and social) is the highest level of organization of sociality. It is defined by the following characteristics: cooperative brood care (including care of offspring from other individuals), overlapping generations wit ...
bee species, the members of ''Ptilothrix'' do not form a hive or have division of labor of individuals. Females nest individually in hard-packed soil and
oviposit The ovipositor is a tube-like organ used by some animals, especially insects, for the laying of eggs. In insects, an ovipositor consists of a maximum of three pairs of appendages. The details and morphology of the ovipositor vary, but typical ...
eggs into brood cells provisioned with masses of pollen and nectar, which provide nutrients for their offspring. The adults emerge from the nest, which is sometimes covered with a layer of soil to prevent predation. Predation in the larval stage is most commonly from parasitoid wasps, fire ants, and assassin flies, whose life cycles are synchronized with ''P. plumata''.Martins, R.P., F.G. Guimaraes, C. M. Dias. 1996. Nesting biology of ''Ptilothrix plumata'' Smith, with a comparison to other species in the genus (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 69(1): 9-16. Due to the threat of predators and adverse environmental conditions, pupae can exhibit pupal
diapause In animal dormancy, diapause is the delay in development in response to regular and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions.Tauber, M.J., Tauber, C.A., Masaki, S. (1986) ''Seasonal Adaptations of Insects''. Oxford University Press It ...
, or the ability to delay maturation until favorable environmental conditions occur. Some species will build their nests in dense aggregations in the same area. Males wait for females at flowers, where they attempt to mate. Multiple studies have suggested that male aggression and mating behavior at flowers may contribute more to pollination of their host flowers than female visitation. One study found that while males accounted for 5% of pollen visits to ''Hibiscus'' flowers, they contributed over 20% of pollen grains deposited on anthers. Therefore, male aggression contributes to increased pollination and seed set among ''Hibiscus''.


Morphology

Bees of this genus are large and can range from . The coarse and long-haired scopae of the genus ''Ptilothrix'' aid them in collecting large-grained pollen, such as is found in the family Malvaceae. This may allow ''Ptilothrix'' species to thrive alongside other introduced species, such as honeybees, as it may reduce interspecific competition for pollen resources. Scopae are thought to have advantages in
evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration (ET) refers to the combined processes which move water from the Earth's surface (open water and ice surfaces, bare soil and vegetation) into the Atmosphere of Earth, atmosphere. It covers both water evaporation (movement of w ...
and reflecting sunlight to keep bees cool in hot, arid environments in contrast to other members in the Apidae, such as honeybees and bumblebees, that have hairless
pollen basket The pollen basket or corbicula (plural corbiculae) is part of the tibia on the hind legs of the female of certain species of bees. They use the structure in harvesting pollen and carrying it to the nest or hive where it is used as food by the col ...
s (corbiculae) to carry their pollen on their legs. ''Ptilothrix'' species are able to walk on the surface of water while being supported by their legs.Rust, R.W. 1980. Biology of ''Ptilothrix bombiformis'' (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 53(2): 427-436.  


Range

Species of this genus are found in North and South America. ''Ptilothrix bombiformis'' is the only species east of the Mississippi River in North America. As with most bee taxa, they are most abundant at latitudes outside of the tropics.Michener, C.D. 2000. ''The Bees of the World'', Vol. 1, Johns Hopkins University Press: 700-706.


Nest construction

''Ptilothrix'' species are also referred to as the chimney bees, referring to the small chimney or turret of the nest entrance that can be seen on the soil surface. While specific nesting behavior varies by species, female members of this genus create ground nests in hard-packed soil. Nests can contain one to many brood cells, and in most species, the female transports water to her nesting site to soften the soil for excavation. The female bee then digs a single-celled or multi-celled burrow, and lines the interior with wax or feces for support. A comprehensive comparison of nest construction and behavior between species can be found in Rust (1980) and Martins et al. (1996). For ''P. bombiformis'' populations, nest survivorship averages about 57% of all nests created in a given season. The major causes of mortality in these populations appeared to be fungal pathogens or failure of the egg to hatch. Among ''P. plumata'' in Brazil, nest mortality rates of about 88% occur among nests that are completed in a season. Predation by fire ants and other parasites is cited as the most likely cause. Females can make multiple nests and tend to avoid making nests in the rainy season. Females of this genus have evolved multiple behaviors to avoid predation. ''P. plumata'' showed a delayed dormancy in nests, with a bimodal presence of hatching existing in nests. This dormancy is in response to environmental conditions and predation. If a female noticed parasites or predators while constructing or visiting a nest, she would cover the nest or shake her body at the entrance to protect it.Telleria, Maria C. (2001). "Pollen harvest by solitary bees (Ptilothrix relata, Hym. Apidae, Emphorini) in the Argentine pampas – preliminary results". ''Grana''. 42: 244–248 – via https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/00173130310016211?scroll=top&needAccess=true. Females have also been observed creating nests and abandoning construction before nests are complete.


Pollination

Bees exhibit a variety of behaviors for gathering pollen, with
oligolecty The term oligolecty is used in pollination ecology to refer to bees that exhibit a narrow, specialized preference for pollen sources, typically to a single family or genus of flowering plants. The preference may occasionally extend broadly to mu ...
being the typical behavior in ''Ptilothrix'' species. ''P. plumata'', for example, is oligolectic towards pollen from plants in the family Malvaceae, with aroun 90% of pollen grains found in ''P. plumata'' nests from '' Pavonia'' species. Just because a bee is oligolectic to a particular plant does not mean that it is the plant's main pollinator. Not surprisingly, the effectiveness of oligoleges as pollinators depends on the species. In some cases where pollen grains are large, they are more effectively carried by the specialist ''Ptilothrix''.Schlindwein, C. 2004. Are oligolectic bees always the most effective pollinators. Solitary bees: conservation, rearing and management for pollination. Imprensa Universitária, Fortaleza, 231-240. In other cases, generalist bees are just as, if not more, effective; pollination effectiveness may have less to do with female pollen provisioning and more to do with male mating competition. In some cases, generalist ''
Bombus A bumblebee (or bumble bee, bumble-bee, or humble-bee) is any of over 250 species in the genus ''Bombus'', part of Apidae, one of the bee families. This genus is the only Extant taxon, extant group in the tribe Bombini, though a few extinct r ...
'' species are more effective pollinators of Malvaceae flowers than the specialist ''P. bombiformis''. Also, it may not be in the specialist's best interest to be an efficient pollinator, since they typically want to provision as much pollen as possible in their nests and not lose it brushing up against a flower.Herrera, C.M. 2005. Plant generalization on pollinators: species property or local phenomenon? American Journal of Botany 92: 13-20.


References


Further reading

* Ascher J.S., Pickering J. (2017) Discover Life bee species guide and world checklist (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophila) http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?search=Apoidea * Michener, C.D. 2000. ''The Bees of the World'', Vol. 1, Johns Hopkins University Press: 700-706. {{Taxonbar, from=Q4047603 Apinae Bee genera Insects of the United States Taxa named by Frederick Smith (entomologist)