The Protectorate of the Western Regions () was an imperial administration (a

protectorate A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a State (polity), state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over ...

) situated in the

Western Regions The Western Regions or Xiyu (Hsi-yü; ) was a historical name specified in Ancient Chinese chronicles between the 3rd century BC to the 8th century AD that referred to the regions west of the Yumen Pass, most often the Tarim Basin in prese ...

administered by Han dynasty China and its successors on and off from 59 or 60 BCE until the end of the

Sixteen Kingdoms The Sixteen Kingdoms (), less commonly the Sixteen States, was a chaotic period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439 when northern China fragmented into a series of short-lived dynastic states. The majority of these states were founded b ...

period in 439 AD. The "Western Regions" refers to areas west of Yumen Pass, especially the

Tarim Basin The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Xinjiang, Northwestern China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, Ch ...

in southern Xinjiang. These areas would later be termed

Altishahr Altishahr (, , ; romanized: ''Altä-şähär'' or ''Alti-şähär''), also known as Kashgaria, or Yettishar is a historical name for the Tarim Basin region used in the 18th and 19th centuries. The term means "Seven Cities" in Turkic languages, ref ...

(southern

Xinjiang Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...

, excluding

Dzungaria Dzungaria (; from the Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand'), also known as Northern Xinjiang or Beijiang, is a geographical subregion in Northwest China that corresponds to the northern half of Xinjiang. Bound by the Altai Mountains to the n ...

) by Turkic-speaking peoples."Xiyu Duhu"
The term "western regions" was also used by the Chinese more generally to refer to

Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...

. The protectorate was the first direct rule by a Chinese government of the area. It consisted of various

vassal state A vassal state is any state that has a mutual obligation to a superior state or empire, in a status similar to that of a vassal in the feudal system in medieval Europe. Vassal states were common among the empires of the Near East, dating back to ...

s and Han garrisons placed under the authority of a protector-general of the Western Regions, who was appointed by the Han court.

History

Background

Prior to the establishment of the protectorate, there was a preceding post known as the "Colonel or the Assistance of ImperialEnvoys" that was established a year after the

War of the Heavenly Horses The War of the Heavenly Horses () or the Han–Dayuan War () was a military conflict fought in 104 BC and 102 BC between the Chinese Han dynasty and the Saka-ruled (Scythian) Greco-Bactrian kingdom known to the Chinese as Dayuan, in the F ...

ended in 101 BC. After the war, Han posts were erected between

Dunhuang Dunhuang () is a county-level city in northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Sachu (Dunhuang) was ...

and the Salt Marsh with several hundred farmer soldiers stationed at Lúntái and Qúlí. The post was established to guard their farmland and to take care of grain storage for Han envoys traveling to other states. Lúntái 輪臺 ( Minimal Old Chinese ''*run-də̂'', Later Han ''luin-də''), formerly transcribed Lúntóu 侖頭 ( Minimal Old Chinese ''*run-dô'', Later Han ''*luin-do''), had been earlier destroyed by the Chinese general Lǐ Guǎnglì 李廣利 in 102 BCE. During the Han–Xiongnu War, the Chinese empire established a military garrison at this place., in present Luntai County. The Chinese sought to control the Western Regions to keep the

Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of Nomad, nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese historiography, Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, t ...

away from Inner China, and to control the valuable

Silk Road The Silk Road was a network of Asian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over , it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between the ...

trade that passed through the area. The local inhabitants of the Western Regions were diverse, and the area contained several groups who originated in Western

Eurasia Eurasia ( , ) is a continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia. According to some geographers, Physical geography, physiographically, Eurasia is a single supercontinent. The concept of Europe and Asia as distinct continents d ...

and/or spoke

Indo-European The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the northern Indian subcontinent, most of Europe, and the Iranian plateau with additional native branches found in regions such as Sri Lanka, the Maldives, parts of Central Asia (e. ...

languages. These groups included Tocharian-speaking city-states like ''Ārśi'' (Arshi; later Agni/Karasahr), '' Kuča'' (Kucha), ''Gumo'' (later Aksu), ''

Turfan Turpan () or Turfan ( zh, s=吐鲁番) is a prefecture-level city located in the east of the autonomous region of Xinjiang, China. It has an area of and a population of 693,988 (2020). The historical center of the prefectural area has shifted ...

'' (Turpan), and

Loulan Loulan ( zh, t=, p=Lóulán <

Eastern Han Chinese

''lo-lɑn'' <

Khotan Hotan (also known by #Etymology, other names) is a major oasis town in southwestern Xinjiang, an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region in Northwestern China. The city proper of Hotan broke off from the larger Hotan County to become an ...

and

Kashgar Kashgar () or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is a city in the Tarim Basin region of southern Xinjiang, China. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, located near the country's border with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. For over 2,000 years, Kashgar ...

spoke

Saka The Saka, Old Chinese, old , Pinyin, mod. , ), Shaka (Sanskrit (Brāhmī): , , ; Sanskrit (Devanāgarī): , ), or Sacae (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples, Eastern Iranian peoples who lived in the Eurasian ...

, one of the

Eastern Iranian languages The Eastern Iranian languages are a subgroup of the Iranian languages, having emerged during the Iranian languages#Middle Iranian, Middle Iranian era (4th century BC to 9th century AD). The Avestan, Avestan language is often classified as early E ...

Establishment

The position of protector-general was officially established in 59 or 60 BCE after the Southern Xiongnu ruler Bi, the Rizhu King of the Right, submitted to the Han dynasty. Rizhu was bestowed the title of Marquis of Allegiance to Imperial Authority while Zheng Ji, the envoy who received him, was commissioned to act as protector-general of both the Northern and Southern routes. Another account states that the post of protector-general had already been established by 64 BC and Zheng Ji was sent out to meet Rizhu, who led over 10,000 Xiongnu to submit to Han authority. Under the protector-general was a deputy colonel of the Western Regions. The protector-general established a general headquarters at Wūlěi 烏壘 ( Minimal Old Chinese ''*ʔâ-ruiʔ'', Later Han ''*ʔɑ-luiᴮ''): 吉於是中西域而立莫府，治烏壘城 “Zheng Ji then established his headquarters in the central western regions, governing the city of Wūlěi”. Wūlěi is situated is 350 ''lǐ'' east of

Kucha Kucha or Kuche (also: ''Kuçar'', ''Kuchar''; , Кучар; zh, t= 龜茲, p=Qiūcí, zh, t= 庫車, p=Kùchē; ) was an ancient Buddhist kingdom located on the branch of the Silk Road that ran along the northern edge of what is now the Taklam ...

and 330 ''lǐ'' north to Qúlí 渠犁 ( Minimal Old Chinese ''*ga-rî/ri'', Later Han ''* gɨɑ-lei/liᴮ''), itself on the east of a river and 580 ''lǐ'' east of Kucha. It was the highest Han dynasty military position in the west during its existence. During the peak of the protectorate's power in 51 BCE, the

Wusun The Wusun ( ) were an ancient semi-Eurasian nomads, nomadic Eurasian Steppe, steppe people of unknown origin mentioned in Chinese people, Chinese records from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD. The Wusun originally l ...

nation was brought under Han submission. The post was abandoned after the usurpation of

Wang Mang Wang Mang (45 BCE6 October 23 CE), courtesy name Jujun, officially known as the Shijianguo Emperor (), was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Chinese Xin dynasty. He was originally an official and consort kin of the ...

(

Xin dynasty The Xin dynasty (; ), also known as Xin Mang () in Chinese historiography, was a short-lived Dynasties in Chinese history, Chinese imperial dynasty which lasted from 9 to 23 AD, established by the Han dynasty consort kin Wang Mang, who usurped th ...

) from 8 to 22 CE. By then, at least 18 different people had served as protector-general, though only 10 of them have known names. In 45 CE, the eighteen states of the Western Regions requested the re-establishment of the protectorate to restore peace to the region, but

Emperor Guangwu of Han Emperor Guangwu of Han (; 15 January 5 BC29 March AD 57), born Liu Xiu (), courtesy name Wenshu (), was a Chinese monarch. He served as an emperor of the Han dynasty by restoring the dynasty in AD 25, thus founding the Eastern Han dynasty. He ...

refused. During the second half of the first century CE, at the time of the Eastern Han dynasty, Chinese armies led by

Ban Chao Ban Chao (; 32–102 CE), courtesy name Zhongsheng, was a Chinese diplomat, explorer, and military general of the Eastern Han dynasty. He was born in Fufeng (region), Fufeng, now Xianyang, Shaanxi. Three of his family members—father Ban Biao, ...

, Dou Gu, and Guo Xun brought the Western Regions back under Han control. The protectorate was thus re-established. In 74 CE,

Emperor Ming of Han Emperor Ming of Han (15June 28 – 5September 75 AD), born and also known as and as , was the second Emperor of the Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty. He was the fourth son and second crown prince of Emperor Guangwu of Han, Empero ...

and his successor awarded the position of protector-general (now with administrative obligations as well) to general Chen Mu. Chen Mu was killed by the rebellious troops of Yanqi and Qiuci. In 83 CE, the office of Chief Official of the Western Regions was established and awarded to Ban Chao. The position of the chief official was beneath that of the protector-general. Ban Chao would later be made protector-general in 91 CE, after which he reconquered the Western Regions. The seat of the protectorate was for a time shifted to Taqian (or Tagan; near modern Kucha). Ban Chao was succeeded by Ren Shang and Duan Xi. On 29 July 107, a series of Qiang uprisings in the areas of

Hexi Corridor The Hexi Corridor ( ), also known as the Gansu Corridor, is an important historical region located in the modern western Gansu province of China. It refers to a narrow stretch of traversable and relatively arable plain west of the Yellow River's O ...

and

Guanzhong Guanzhong (, formerly romanization of Chinese, romanised as Kwanchung) region, also known as the Guanzhong Basin, Wei River Basin, or uncommonly as the Shaanzhong region, is a historical region of China corresponding to the crescentic graben str ...

. Duan Xi was killed and the post was abandoned. The protectorate was later restored from 123 to 124 by the son of Ban Chao, Ban Yong. The protectorate was again revived in 335 by Former Liang and headquartered in

Gaochang Gaochang (; Old Uyghur: ''Qocho''), also called Khocho, Karakhoja, Qara-hoja, Kara-Khoja or Karahoja (قاراغوجا in Uyghur), was an ancient oasis city on the northern rim of the inhospitable Taklamakan Desert in present-day Sanbu Town ...

until the demise of

Northern Liang The Northern Liang (; 397–439) was a Dynasties in Chinese history, dynastic state of China and one of the Sixteen Kingdoms in Chinese history. It was ruled by the Juqu (沮渠) family of Lushuihu ethnicity, though they are sometimes categorized ...

. In the southern Tarim Basin, coins from the period of the protectorate's existence have been found with inscriptions in both Chinese and the Kharoshthi script, which was used for local Indo-European languages. In the 7th century, a successor administration, the Protectorate General to Pacify the West was established by the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

at Xizhou (Turpan) and was later moved to Kucha.

Localisation

Historians and archaeologists have debated the location of the archaeological site corresponding to the seat of the Protectorate of the Western Regions. According to the current state of archaeology, one of the candidates is the Zorküt Ancient City, due to the size of the site.Chén Líng (陈凌), Wāsīmǎ Tǎlátì (娃斯玛·塔拉提), Wáng Lóng (王龙), "Xīnjiāng Lúntái Zhuó'ěrkǔtè Gǔchéng Kǎogǔ Shōuhuò" 新疆轮台卓尔库特古城考古收获 rchaeological Findings at the Zhuó'ěrkǔtè Ancient City in Luntai, Xinjiang Xīyù Yánjiū (西域研究) esearch on the Western Regions 2021(02): 105–112, 171–172. DOI:10.16363/j.cnki.xyyj.2021.02.011.

Thirty-six city states

List of protectors-general

Western Han and Xin

* Zheng Ji 60－48 BCE * Han Xuan (韓宣) 48－45 BCE * Unknown (3rd) 45－42 BCE * Unknown (4th) 42－39 BCE * Unknown (5th) 39－36 BCE * Gan Yanshou (甘延壽) 36－33 BCE * Duan Huizong (段會宗) 33－30, 21－18 BCE * Lian Bao (廉褒) 30－27 BCE * Unknown (9th) 27－24 BCE * Han Li (韓立) 24－21 BCE * Unknown (11th) 18－15 BCE * Guo Shun (郭舜) 15－12 BCE * Sun Jian (孫建) 12－9 BCE * Unknown (14th) 9－6 BCE * Unknown (15th) 6－3 BCE * Unknown (16th) 3 BCE－1 CE * Dan Qin (但欽) 1－13 CE * Li Chong 13－23 CE

Eastern Han

* Chen Mu 74－75 *

91－102 * Ren Shang 102－106 * Duan Xi 106－107

Maps

File:Asia 001ad.jpg, Asia in 1 AD. The Western Regions were at the centre of the map (south-west of the Xiongnu) File:Roman HanEmpiresAD1.png, The Han dynasty (yellow) in 1 AD. File:Xinjiang regions simplified.png, Modern Xinjiang, showing . File:Larger Tarim oasis states (1st century BC).svg, 1st century BC

References

Bibliography

* * *

External links

* Ma, Yong
"Xiyu Duhu" ("Protector General of the Western Regions")
''

Encyclopedia of China The ''Encyclopedia of China'' () is the first large-entry modern encyclopedia in the Chinese language. The compilation began in 1978. Published by the Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, the encyclopedia was issued one volume at a time, be ...

'' (Chinese History Edition), 1st ed.
The Grand Game in Afghanistan

{{coord missing, Xinjiang Administrative divisions of Imperial China Han dynasty History of Xinjiang Former protectorates History of the Chinese in Central Asia