Pomor Trade
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The Pomor trade (; ) was carried out between the Pomors of
Northwest Russia Northwest Russia, or the Russian North is the northern part of European Russia, western Russia. It is bounded by Norway, Finland, the Arctic Ocean, the Ural Mountains and the east-flowing part of the Volga. The area is roughly coterminous with th ...
and the people along the coast of
northern Norway Northern Norway (, , ; ) is a geographical region of Norway, consisting of the three northernmost counties Nordland, Troms and Finnmark, in total about 35% of the Norwegian mainland. Some of the largest towns in Northern Norway (from south to no ...
, as far south as Bodø. The trade went on from 1740 until the
Bolshevik Revolution The October Revolution, also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution (in Soviet historiography), October coup, Bolshevik coup, or Bolshevik revolution, was the second of two revolutions in Russia in 1917. It was led by Vladimir L ...
in 1917. The Pomor trade began as a
barter In trade, barter (derived from ''bareter'') is a system of exchange (economics), exchange in which participants in a financial transaction, transaction directly exchange good (economics), goods or service (economics), services for other goods ...
trade between people in the area, mainly
grain A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit (caryopsis) – with or without an attached husk, hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and ...
products from Russia and
fish A fish (: fish or fishes) is an aquatic animal, aquatic, Anamniotes, anamniotic, gill-bearing vertebrate animal with swimming fish fin, fins and craniate, a hard skull, but lacking limb (anatomy), limbs with digit (anatomy), digits. Fish can ...
from northern Norway. With time it developed into a regular cash trade; in fact the
ruble The ruble or rouble (; rus, рубль, p=rublʲ) is a currency unit. Currently, currencies named ''ruble'' in circulation include the Russian ruble (RUB, ₽) in Russia and the Belarusian ruble (BYN, Rbl) in Belarus. These currencies are s ...
was used as currency in several places in northern Norway. The Pomor trade was of major importance both to the
Russians Russians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. Their mother tongue is Russian language, Russian, the most spoken Slavic languages, Slavic language. The majority of Russians adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church ...
and the
Norwegians Norwegians () are an ethnic group and nation native to Norway, where they form the vast majority of the population. They share a common culture and speak the Norwegian language. Norwegians are descended from the Norsemen, Norse of the Early ...
. It was carried out by Russian Pomors from the
White Sea The White Sea (; Karelian language, Karelian and ; ) is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea located on the northwest coast of Russia. It is surrounded by Karelia to the west, the Kola Peninsula to the north, and the Kanin Peninsula to the nort ...
area and the Kola Peninsula who sailed to settlements and places of trade along the coast of northern Norway. The Pomors were skilled traders and sailors, and they also explored areas around the White Sea. In addition to their trade westward, they established a trade route eastward to northwestern
Siberia Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...
.


Trade between the countries since the Viking Age

Trade between the
Russians Russians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. Their mother tongue is Russian language, Russian, the most spoken Slavic languages, Slavic language. The majority of Russians adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church ...
and the people of northern Norway has a long history, dating back at least to the
Viking Age The Viking Age (about ) was the period during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings undertook large-scale raiding, colonising, conquest, and trading throughout Europe and reached North America. The Viking Age applies not only to their ...
. The Russians of the Principality of Novgorod traded with the
Sami people Acronyms * SAMI, ''Synchronized Accessible Media Interchange'', a closed-captioning format developed by Microsoft * Saudi Arabian Military Industries, a government-owned defence company * South African Malaria Initiative, a virtual expertise ...
from the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
until the beginning of the 17th century. In early summer, the catch from the winter and spring fisheries in northern Norway, mainly
stockfish Stockfish is unsalted fish, especially cod, dried by cold air and wind on wooden racks (which are called "hjell" in Norway) on the foreshore. The drying of food is the world's oldest known preservation method, and dried fish has a storage li ...
and unsalted dried
cod Cod (: cod) is the common name for the demersal fish genus ''Gadus'', belonging to the family (biology), family Gadidae. Cod is also used as part of the common name for a number of other fish species, and one species that belongs to genus ''Gad ...
, was bought and shipped south to
Trondheim Trondheim ( , , ; ), historically Kaupangen, Nidaros, and Trondhjem (), is a city and municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. As of 2022, it had a population of 212,660. Trondheim is the third most populous municipality in Norway, and is ...
and
Bergen Bergen (, ) is a city and municipalities of Norway, municipality in Vestland county on the Western Norway, west coast of Norway. Bergen is the list of towns and cities in Norway, second-largest city in Norway after the capital Oslo. By May 20 ...
by traders. The six weeks from 10 July to 20 August were referred to as the "maggot time", because the fish was difficult to conserve in summer, and there was no market southwards for it. The Pomors recognized this opportunity. They sailed west in the "maggot time" and bought fish, either readily prepared
stockfish Stockfish is unsalted fish, especially cod, dried by cold air and wind on wooden racks (which are called "hjell" in Norway) on the foreshore. The drying of food is the world's oldest known preservation method, and dried fish has a storage li ...
or
salt fish Salted fish, such as Kipper, kippered herring or dried and salted cod, is fish curing (food preservation), cured with dry Salt#Edible salt, salt and thus food preservation, preserved for later eating. Drying (food), Drying or Salting (food), salt ...
, or fish that they salted themselves in the cargo hold of their vessels. Fish was in demand in Russia due to the
Russian Orthodox Church The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC; ;), also officially known as the Moscow Patriarchate (), is an autocephaly, autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodox Christian church. It has 194 dioceses inside Russia. The Primate (bishop), p ...
's frequent
fasting Fasting is the act of refraining from eating, and sometimes drinking. However, from a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (before "breakfast"), or to the metabolic sta ...
days, when only fish and vegetarian food was allowed. The fish was shipped to Arkangelsk, which was also a port of shipment for grain products meant for northern Norway. In addition to the vessels from Arkangelsk, Pomor trade was carried out from other harbors along the White Sea, such as Kem and Onega, and also from smaller places such as Suma, Kolisma, Solotiza, Mudjunga, Saroka and Sjuja. From 1740 the Pomor trade spread in northern Norway, and from about 1770 the Pomors came annually with cheap
rye Rye (''Secale cereale'') is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is grown principally in an area from Eastern and Northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than o ...
flour (referred to as "Russian flour" in Norway) and also
wheat Wheat is a group of wild and crop domestication, domesticated Poaceae, grasses of the genus ''Triticum'' (). They are Agriculture, cultivated for their cereal grains, which are staple foods around the world. Well-known Taxonomy of wheat, whe ...
flour. The grain was grown inland around the
Volga The Volga (, ) is the longest river in Europe and the longest endorheic basin river in the world. Situated in Russia, it flows through Central Russia to Southern Russia and into the Caspian Sea. The Volga has a length of , and a catchment ...
basin and transported to traders along the White Sea. In northern Norway, the Pomor trade was in certain periods essential for survival. In the 18th century there were several crop failures in Norway. For instance, the price of rye in Bergen increased fivefold over a 30 year period. Thus, the Pomor trade was important for food supply. Fishermen could buy cheap grains and flour, and could sell the catch from the summer fisheries for a good price. It was possible to haggle with the Pomors, the trade had no middlemen to drive up prices, and no
tax A tax is a mandatory financial charge or levy imposed on an individual or legal entity by a governmental organization to support government spending and public expenditures collectively or to regulate and reduce negative externalities. Tax co ...
es or
customs Customs is an authority or Government agency, agency in a country responsible for collecting tariffs and for controlling International trade, the flow of goods, including animals, transports, personal effects, and hazardous items, into and out ...
fees were paid to the government for the merchandise. In addition to rye and wheat flour, the Pomors carried other food, such as oatmeal,
salt In common usage, salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially in granulated form, it is more formally called table salt. In the form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as r ...
,
pea Pea (''pisum'' in Latin) is a pulse or fodder crop, but the word often refers to the seed or sometimes the pod of this flowering plant species. Peas are eaten as a vegetable. Carl Linnaeus gave the species the scientific name ''Pisum sativum' ...
s,
meat Meat is animal Tissue (biology), tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of vertebrates, including chickens, sheep, ...
and
dairy product Dairy products or milk products are food products made from (or containing) milk. The most common dairy animals are cow, water buffalo, goat, nanny goat, and Sheep, ewe. Dairy products include common grocery store food around the world such as y ...
s. Other useful merchandise included
iron Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...
,
timber Lumber is wood that has been processed into uniform and useful sizes (dimensional lumber), including beams and planks or boards. Lumber is mainly used for construction framing, as well as finishing (floors, wall panels, window frames). ...
, pine tar,
birch bark Birch bark or birchbark is the bark of several Eurasian and North American birch trees of the genus ''Betula''. For all practical purposes, birch bark's main layers are the outer dense layer, white on the outside, and the inner porous layer ( ...
,
candle A candle is an ignitable candle wick, wick embedded in wax, or another flammable solid substance such as tallow, that provides light, and in some cases, a Aroma compound, fragrance. A candle can also provide heat or a method of keeping time. ...
s,
cooking pot Cookware and bakeware is food preparation equipment, such as cooking pots, pans, baking sheets etc. used in kitchens. Cookware is used on a Kitchen stove, stove or range cooktop, while bakeware is used in an oven. Some utensils are considere ...
s,
hemp Hemp, or industrial hemp, is a plant in the botanical class of ''Cannabis sativa'' cultivars grown specifically for industrial and consumable use. It can be used to make a wide range of products. Along with bamboo, hemp is among the fastest ...
,
rope A rope is a group of yarns, Plying, plies, fibres, or strands that are plying, twisted or braided together into a larger and stronger form. Ropes have high tensile strength and can be used for dragging and lifting. Rope is thicker and stronger ...
and
canvas Canvas is an extremely durable Plain weave, plain-woven Cloth, fabric used for making sails, tents, Tent#Marquees and larger tents, marquees, backpacks, Shelter (building), shelters, as a Support (art), support for oil painting and for other ite ...
. They also brought luxury items such as
candy Candy, alternatively called sweets or lollies, is a Confectionery, confection that features sugar as a principal ingredient. The category, also called ''sugar confectionery'', encompasses any sweet confection, including chocolate, chewing gum ...
,
soap Soap is a salt (chemistry), salt of a fatty acid (sometimes other carboxylic acids) used for cleaning and lubricating products as well as other applications. In a domestic setting, soaps, specifically "toilet soaps", are surfactants usually u ...
,
porcelain Porcelain (), also called china, is a ceramic material made by heating Industrial mineral, raw materials, generally including kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures between . The greater strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to oth ...
, and
wood carving Wood carving (or woodcarving) is a form of woodworking by means of a cutting tool (knife) in one hand or a chisel by two hands or with one hand on a chisel and one hand on a mallet, resulting in a wooden figure or figurine, or in the sculpture, ...
s. On their way home the Pomors loaded their ships with fish of various sorts, mainly
Atlantic cod The Atlantic cod (: cod; ''Gadus morhua'') is a fish of the family Gadidae, widely consumed by humans. It is also commercially known as '' cod'' or ''codling''.pollock Pollock or pollack (pronounced ) is the common name used for either of the two species of North Atlantic ocean, marine fish in the genus ''Pollachius''. ''Pollachius pollachius'' is referred to as "pollock" in North America, Ireland and the Unit ...
, but also
Atlantic halibut The Atlantic halibut (''Hippoglossus hippoglossus'') is a flatfish of the family Pleuronectidae. They are demersal fish living on or near sand, gravel or clay bottoms at depths of between . The halibut is among the largest Teleostei, teleost (bon ...
and
haddock The haddock (''Melanogrammus aeglefinus'') is a saltwater ray-finned fish from the Family (biology), family Gadidae, the true cods. It is the only species in the Monotypy, monotypic genus ''Melanogrammus''. It is found in the North Atlantic Oce ...
.


Regulating the pomor trade

King Haakon V of Norway prohibited foreigners from trading in northern Norway as early as 1316. Until the Protestant Reformation the trade between northern Norway and the Hanseatic League in Bergen was controlled by the Archbishop of Trondheim. In the middle of the 16th century the trade monopoly was transferred to citizens of Bergen and Trondheim. There are reports of Russians trading illegally in northern Norway from the late 17th century. Norwegians trading with Russians could be punished by being denied winter supplies from the (Norwegian) merchants. The trade monopoly was lifted in 1715. Later in the 18th century, the trade was placed under the control of the king and commercial houses of
Copenhagen Copenhagen ( ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a population of 1.4 million in the Urban area of Copenhagen, urban area. The city is situated on the islands of Zealand and Amager, separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the ...
. In 1783 the government decided that northern Norway should be supplied with grain and other merchandise from Russia instead of
Denmark Denmark is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark,, . also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the Autonomous a ...
. The trade monopoly was abolished and free trade was introduced in 1789.
Vardø Vardo or Vardø may refer to: Places * Vardø Municipality, a municipality in Finnmark county, Norway *Vardø (town) (Norwegian language, Norwegian; ), , or is a List of towns and cities in Norway, town and the administrative centre of Vard ...
and Hammerfest in Finnmark were given town status, and the merchants there gained trade privileges. Vardø grew to be the most important town in Norway regarding the pomor trade. The harbour in Vardø could at times have 100 Russian vessels moored simultaneously, and also had a Russian consulate.
Tromsø Tromsø is a List of towns and cities in Norway, city in Tromsø Municipality in Troms county, Norway. The city is the administrative centre of the municipality as well as the administrative centre of Troms county. The city is located on the is ...
gained town status and trade privileges in 1794, and was given a monopoly for trading with the pomors in
Troms Troms (; ; ; ) is a Counties of Norway, county in northern Norway. It borders Finnmark county to the northeast and Nordland county in the southwest. Norrbotten Län in Sweden is located to the south and further southeast is a shorter border with ...
. In the early 19th century, the pomor trade was legalized south to
Lofoten Lofoten ( , ; ; ) is an archipelago and a Districts of Norway, traditional district in the county of Nordland, Norway. Lofoten has distinctive scenery with dramatic mountains and peaks, open sea and sheltered bays, beaches, and untouched lands. T ...
. Direct trade with the fishermen was illegal; the pomor trade was reserved for the merchants. This new situation meant a restriction for the fishermen, as until 1789 the Norwegian government had more or less looked the other way when fishermen traded directly with the pomors, but now this became difficult. In 1796, fishermen in Finnmark were allowed to trade directly, but only for one month in the "maggot time". Several merchants in Troms were allowed to trade with the pomors in 1818, and in 1839 the fishermen in Troms could trade directly, but only at four locations in Troms county. In addition, fishermen in
Lofoten Lofoten ( , ; ; ) is an archipelago and a Districts of Norway, traditional district in the county of Nordland, Norway. Lofoten has distinctive scenery with dramatic mountains and peaks, open sea and sheltered bays, beaches, and untouched lands. T ...
and Vesterålen were allowed to trade directly. During the Gunboat War in the early 19th century, the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
introduced a trade embargo against Denmark-Norway. In this period, the pomor trade proved vital for northern Norway. A decree legalizing direct trade between fishermen and pomors during the
Napoleonic Wars {{Infobox military conflict , conflict = Napoleonic Wars , partof = the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , image = Napoleonic Wars (revision).jpg , caption = Left to right, top to bottom:Battl ...
was issued in 1809. Several Russian vessels were seized by the British
Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the naval warfare force of the United Kingdom. It is a component of His Majesty's Naval Service, and its officers hold their commissions from the King of the United Kingdom, King. Although warships were used by Kingdom ...
, and thus many vessels did not sail any further than eastern Finnmark. In 1809, during the Anglo-Russian War, the British government established a blockade along Norway's coast to stop the pomor trade and cut the supply lines from Arkangelsk. The White Sea was closed, but quite a few Russian vessels managed to slip through. The Norwegian response to the blockade was to fortify important harbours such as Hammerfest, and in 1810 the Norwegians established a special naval squadron, the ''Finnmarkseskadren'' ("The Finnmark squadron"), to protect the pomor trade. Kaptainløitant Jochum Nicolay Müller, a veteran of the first Battle of Copenhagen in 1801, and captain of ''Lougen'', commanded the squadron.


Golden age and discontinuance

Later in the 19th century, northern Norway experienced an economic recovery, with better communications south, especially thanks to a coastal steamship route. The need for grain imports from Russia declined. Yet the Pomor trade increased, reaching its golden age in the last years of the 19th century. Trade privileges were lifted around 1870, and the trade period was extended. In 1874 the trade took place between 15 June and 30 September, which by and large is when the White Sea is ice-free. An important reason for the increase in trade was the legalization of trade directly with the fishermen. The number of trade places were also increased. The Pomors modernized their vessels in this period. The ''lodje'' disappeared in the 1880s, and
schooners A schooner ( ) is a type of sailing vessel defined by its rig: fore-and-aft rigged on all of two or more masts and, in the case of a two-masted schooner, the foremast generally being shorter than the mainmast. A common variant, the topsail ...
, jekter and galeases were used. The
Solovetsky Monastery The Solovetsky Monastery (, ) is a fortified monastery located on the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea in northern Russia. It was one of the largest Christian citadels in northern Russia before it was converted into a Soviet Union, Soviet pris ...
of the
Solovetsky Islands The Solovetsky Islands ( rus, Соловецкие острова, p=səlɐˈvʲetskʲɪj ɐstrɐˈva), or Solovki ( rus, Соловки, p=səlɐfˈkʲi), are an archipelago located in the Onega Bay of the White Sea, Russia. As an administrati ...
in the White Sea was the religious center of the Pomors. The monastery possessed large properties around the White Sea, and its commercial interests included boat-building, a saltworks, and fisheries. It owned several
steamers Steamer may refer to: Transportation * Steamboat, smaller, insular boat on lakes and rivers * Steamship, ocean-faring ship * Screw steamer, steamboat or ship that uses "screws" (propellers) * Steam yacht, luxury or commercial yacht * Paddle st ...
participating in the Pomor trade in the early 20th century. In 1870, 400 Pomor vessels visited Tromsø. Normally, over 300 Pomor vessels with a crew of around 2,000 visited northern Norway annually. In 1900, Russia was Norway's fourth most important trade partner, and rye flour remained the main commodity. After 1910, less flour was traded, the Russians paying for the fish with money instead. During
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, Russian export regulations were changed, and fear of
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
submarine attacks limited the Pomor trade. After the
Bolshevik Revolution The October Revolution, also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution (in Soviet historiography), October coup, Bolshevik coup, or Bolshevik revolution, was the second of two revolutions in Russia in 1917. It was led by Vladimir L ...
in 1917, the Pomor trade ceased. This had negative effects on the economy of northern Norway, especially for the settlements along the coast. The fishermen no longer had a possibility to sell their summer catch. The occasional Pomor vessel still came to Norway after the trade was officially terminated, the last one arriving in 1929, when Joseph Stalin's collectivisation came into full effect, ending private property rights and persecuting merchants.


More than trade connections

Beginning in the 1830s, a
pidgin A pidgin , or pidgin language, is a grammatically simplified form of contact language that develops between two or more groups of people that do not have a language in common: typically, its vocabulary and grammar are limited and often drawn f ...
language began taking form between Norwegians and Russians, '' Russenorsk''. A lack of metalinguistic awareness amongst Russenorsk speakers may have led them to believe they were speaking the language of their interlocutor; that is, that Russians believed they were speaking Norwegian and vice versa. As Norwegian merchants began sending their children to school in Arkhangelsk, Russenorsk lost some of its standing. Many of the large trade places along the coast of northern Norway that sprung up in the 19th century were based upon the Pomor trade. The trade led to other relations; for instance the Russians started a regular steamship service from
Arkhangelsk Arkhangelsk (, ) is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. It lies on both banks of the Northern Dvina near its mouth into the White Sea. The city spreads for over along the ...
to
Vardø Vardo or Vardø may refer to: Places * Vardø Municipality, a municipality in Finnmark county, Norway *Vardø (town) (Norwegian language, Norwegian; ), , or is a List of towns and cities in Norway, town and the administrative centre of Vard ...
in 1875. This service paved the ground for Russian tourism and seasonal workers in
Finnmark Finnmark (; ; ; ; ) is a counties of Norway, county in northern Norway. By land, it borders Troms county to the west, Finland's Lapland (Finland), Lapland region to the south, and Russia's Murmansk Oblast to the east, and by water, the Norweg ...
. The people of northern Norway got an insight into a different culture: ddinking tea brewed on a
samovar A samovar (, , ) is a metal container traditionally used to heat and boil water. Although originating in Russia, the samovar is well known outside of Russia and has spread through Russian culture to other parts of Eastern Europe, as well as We ...
, part-singing, the colourful clothes of Russian women and the hospitality of the Pomor skipper's cabin. Often, the vessels visited the same place year after year, and the Norwegians got to know the skipper and crew. The Russians were highly esteemed in northern Norway, being known as trustworthy.


Literature

* Per Botolf Maurseth ''Historiske handelsstrømmer mellom Norge og Russland : betydningen av pomorhandelen fram mot første verdenskrig''. I: '' Historisk tidsskrift'' 1997 * Einar Niemi. ''Pomor, Norge og Russland i nord''. I: ''P2-akademiet. E'' (NRK, 1996) * Einar Niemi (red.) ''Pomor : Nord-Norge og Nord-Russland gjennom tusen år'' (Gyldendal, 1992) *''Ottar'', nr 4, 1992 (''temanummer'') *Anastasia Gorter-Grønvik. ''Ter-Kysten''. I: "Nordnorsk magasin", nr 3/4 (1998) *Anastasia Gorter-Grønvik. ''Til de gamle pomorbyene i 1990-åra''. Article series in "Nordnorsk magasin", nr 1 (1994) - nr 8 (1993) - nr 6/7 (1993) og nr 5 (1993)


Notes

{{Reflist, group=Note


External links


The Pomor Museum in Vardø
by Ivan Kristoffersen, 2003. din.nobr>«Nordlysveien: Pomorhandelen», Universitetsbiblioteket i Tromsø, 2001Håvard Dahl Bratrein: «Karlsøy og Helgøy bygdebok», 1989


References

Economy of the Russian Empire
Trade Trade involves the transfer of goods and services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Economists refer to a system or network that allows trade as a market. Traders generally negotiate through a medium of cr ...
Economic history of Norway 1740 establishments in Europe 1740s establishments in Norway 1917 disestablishments in Norway History of Finnmark History of Murmansk Oblast History of the Arctic Norway–Russia relations