Piero del Pollaiuolo ( , , ; also spelled Pollaiolo; – by 1496), whose birth name was Piero Benci, was an

Italian Renaissance painter Italian Renaissance painting is the painting of the period beginning in the late 13th century and flourishing from the early 15th to late 16th centuries, occurring in the Italian Peninsula, which was at that time divided into many political sta ...

from

Florence Florence ( ; ) is the capital city of the Italy, Italian region of Tuscany. It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 362,353 inhabitants, and 989,460 in Metropolitan City of Florence, its metropolitan province as of 2025. Florence ...

. His older brother, by about ten years, was the artist

Antonio del Pollaiuolo Antonio del Pollaiuolo ( , , ; 17 January 1429/14334 February 1498), also known as Antonio di Jacopo Pollaiuolo or Antonio Pollaiuolo (also spelled Pollaiolo), was an Italian Renaissance painter, sculptor, engraver, and goldsmith, who made ...

and the two frequently worked together. Their work shows both classical influences and an interest in

human anatomy Human anatomy (gr. ἀνατομία, "dissection", from ἀνά, "up", and τέμνειν, "cut") is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the human body. Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross ...

; according to Vasari, the brothers carried out dissections to improve their knowledge of the subject (though modern scholars tend to doubt this).

Giorgio Vasari Giorgio Vasari (30 July 1511 – 27 June 1574) was an Italian Renaissance painter, architect, art historian, and biographer who is best known for his work ''Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects'', considered the ideol ...

, who wrote several decades after both brothers were dead, includes a joint biography of Antonio and Piero del Pollaiuolo in his ''

Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects ''The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects'' () is a series of artist biographies written by 16th-century Italian painter and architect Giorgio Vasari, which is considered "perhaps the most famous, and even today the ...

''. Vasari says that Antonio was especially highly regarded for his ''disegno'' or drawing, and it may be that on shared works he did most of the

underdrawing Underdrawing is a preparatory drawing done on a painting ground before paint is applied, for example, an imprimatura or an underpainting. Underdrawing was used extensively by 15th century painters like Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden. Thes ...

, leaving Piero and their assistants to complete the painting. Vasari began the tradition of stressing the contribution of Antonio rather than Piero to the paintings, which went largely unchallenged until the 20th century, despite suspicions by art historians such as "

Crowe and Cavalcaselle Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle (22 January 1819 – 31 October 1897) was an Italian writer and art critic, best known as part of "Crowe and Cavalcaselle", for the many works in English on art history he co-authored with Joseph Archer Crowe. ...

" in the late 19th century, and in the 20th Martin Davies, later Director of the

National Gallery The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of more than 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The current di ...

. In the 21st century a full and partly successful challenge has been mounted, and some attributions changed. In recent years there has been a trend among art historians to increase the credit Piero is given for the paintings, led by figures such as Aldo Galli, whose ''Antonio and Piero Del Pollaiuolo: Silver and Gold, Painting and Bronze'' (2014) assigns the actual painting of many works to Piero that had long been given to Antonio, or both brothers. At least one of the brothers was influenced by the landscape style of

Early Netherlandish painting Early Netherlandish painting is the body of work by artists active in the Burgundian Netherlands, Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands during the 15th- and 16th-century Northern Renaissance period, once known as the Flemish Primitives. It flour ...

, and the revisionist school thinks that this was Piero.

Assigning attributions

Contemporaries regarded Antonio as much the more significant talent; he was also a sculptor, whereas Piero seems only to have painted. They had separate workshops in a shared building. Disentangling their contributions, and those of their assistants, in paintings is difficult, as can be seen from Vasari onwards. Many works are given joint attributions, but others, especially smaller works, are given to a single brother. In some cases these have changed over the years, for example the ''

Apollo and Daphne Apollo and Daphne is an Ancient Greek transformation or metamorphosis myth. No written or artistic versions survive from ancient Greek mythology, so it is likely Hellenistic in origin. It was retold by Roman authors in the form of an amorous ...

'' in the

in London was long attributed to Antonio, but by 2023 is described by the museum as by Piero. Davies, in 1961, noted "The attribution to Antonio, claimed to be a better man than Piero, is little more than a recognition of its high quality". In the traditional distribution of authorship, Piero (and his workshop) was usually given the smaller

altarpiece An altarpiece is a painting or sculpture, including relief, of religious subject matter made for placing at the back of or behind the altar of a Christian church. Though most commonly used for a single work of art such as a painting or sculpture, ...

s and portraits, with mythological subjects, especially several with

Hercules Hercules (, ) is the Roman equivalent of the Greek divine hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmena. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures. The Romans adapted the Gr ...

, given to Antonio. One well-known portrait in Berlin, the '' Profile Portrait of a Young Lady'' has been attributed to both brothers individually, as well as a string of other masters. Piero only signed and dated one painting, his ''

Coronation of the Virgin A coronation ceremony marks the formal investiture of a monarch with regal power using a crown. In addition to the crowning, this ceremony may include the presentation of other items of regalia, and other rituals such as the taking of special ...

'' of 1483 in

Sant'Agostino, San Gimignano The chiesa di Sant'Agostino (Church of St Augustine) is the second largest church in San Gimignano, Italy, after the Collegiata. It is owned by the Order of Saint Augustine. Sant'Agostino is an imposing 13th century building. The interior is ...

, while Antonio only signed his most important sculptures, his papal tombs, and his single engraving, the '' Battle of the Nude Men''. A profile portrait of a richly dressed young woman, the

Museo Poldi Pezzoli The Museo Poldi Pezzoli is an art museum in Milan, Italy. It is located near the Teatro alla Scala, on Via Manzoni 12. The museum was originated in the 19th century as a private collection of Gian Giacomo Poldi Pezzoli (1822–1879) and his m ...

's '' Portrait of a Young Woman'' (c. 1470), is now also regarded by the museum (Aldo Galli's base) as by Piero, but in 2005 was "now generally assigned to Antonio", according to Alison Wright, author of the most recent

monograph A monograph is generally a long-form work on one (usually scholarly) subject, or one aspect of a subject, typically created by a single author or artist (or, sometimes, by two or more authors). Traditionally it is in written form and published a ...

of the brothers in English. Similar portraits in Berlin, the

Uffizi The Uffizi Gallery ( ; , ) is a prominent art museum adjacent to the Piazza della Signoria in the Historic Centre of Florence in the region of Tuscany, Italy. One of the most important Italian museums and the most visited, it is also one of th ...

in Florence, and the

Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met, is an Encyclopedic museum, encyclopedic art museum in New York City. By floor area, it is the List of largest museums, third-largest museum in the world and the List of larg ...

in New York form a group of four that are typically given the same attribution, but the plainer and more forceful Boston female portrait is separated by many (see below). A letter by Antonio in 1494 stated that the original, now lost, very large three paintings featuring

done for the Palazzo Medici over thirty years before, were a work of both brothers, the only specific documentation tying Antonio to any work in painting. The miniature versions of two of them that are now in the

are one pair of traditional attributions to Antonio that Galli accepts. In the case of the largest surviving Pollaiuolo painting, the ''Saint Sebastian'' altarpiece now in London, differences in quality within the large painted area have always been noted by art historians, and traditionally those parts regarded as of top quality were attributed to Antonio, and those less good to Piero or assistants. Galli sees the whole piece as Piero's, with his team. The situation is not entirely clarified by Piero's documented, important and very public commission in 1479 for a set of full-length paintings of the ''

Seven Virtues In Christian history, the seven heavenly virtues combine the four cardinal virtues of prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude with the three theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity. The seven capital virtues, also known as seven l ...

'' for the

Palazzo della Signoria A palace is a large residence, often serving as a royal residence or the home for a head of state or another high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome whi ...

, the seat of government of the

Republic of Florence The Republic of Florence (; Old Italian: ), known officially as the Florentine Republic, was a medieval and early modern state that was centered on the Italian city of Florence in Tuscany, Italy. The republic originated in 1115, when the Flor ...

. They were to decorate the room of the ''Tribunale della Mercanzia'', the body overseeing all the

Guilds of Florence The guilds of Florence were secular corporations that controlled the arts and trades in Florence from the twelfth into the sixteenth century. These ''Arti'' included seven major guilds (collectively known as the ''Arti Maggiori''), five middle g ...

. In the end, and after some public acrimony, ''Fortitude'' was done by

Botticelli Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi ( – May 17, 1510), better known as Sandro Botticelli ( ; ) or simply known as Botticelli, was an Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. Botticelli's posthumous reputation suffered until the late 1 ...

and the other six by Piero; all seven are now in the

(see below). Given the nature of their relationship, some art historians have continued to suggest that Antonio helped Piero with aspects of the paintings, either in the design or the execution. Others are happy to use their style to identify similar works as by Piero's workshop. Aldo Galli's redistribution of the paintings does not so much depend on stylistic analysis as a reassessment of early (pre-Vasari) documentary records and comments by early writers such as the " Anonimo Gaddiano" probably from the 1530s and 1540s, so only shortly before Vasari. But one characteristic and unusual feature of some paintings is that they are painted directly onto the wood panel, without the usual careful preparation of glue and

gesso A restored gesso panel representing St. Martin of Tours, from St. Michael and All Angels Church, Lyndhurst, Hampshire Gesso (; 'chalk', from the , from ), also known as "glue gesso" or "Italian gesso", is a white paint mixture used to coat rigi ...

. The Boston ''Lady'' and Uffizi ''Galeazzo Maria Sforza'' are examples. But this has also been described as a technique used by Antonio, and was used in the ''

David David (; , "beloved one") was a king of ancient Israel and Judah and the third king of the United Monarchy, according to the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament. The Tel Dan stele, an Aramaic-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Dam ...

'' in Berlin. A recently re-attributed ''Portrait of a Youth'' sold at

Sotheby's Sotheby's ( ) is a British-founded multinational corporation with headquarters in New York City. It is one of the world's largest brokers of fine art, fine and decorative art, jewellery, and collectibles. It has 80 locations in 40 countries, an ...

in 2021 for 4,564,200 GBP (6,261,764 USD), the first "fully attributed work" by Piero ever to come to auction. It had previously been attributed to

Cosimo Rosselli Cosimo Rosselli (; 1439–1507) was an Italian painter of the Quattrocento, active mainly in his birthplace of Florence, but also in Pisa earlier in his career and in 1481–82 in the Sistine Chapel in Rome, where he painted some of the large ...

among others, and with the portrait of Galeazzo Maria Sforza is Piero's only known male portrait. The teenage subject is given an almost frontal pose, unusual for the period. The reattribution was supported by Alison Wright and Aldo Galli, among others.

Biography

He was born in

. The brothers took their nickname from the trade of their father Jacopo, who sold poultry, ''pollaio'' meaning "hen coop" in

Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, a Romance ethnic group related to or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance languag ...

, and ''pollaiuolo'' "poulterer". This was a luxury trade at the time, and Jacopo's four sons were unlikely all to find room for careers in it. According to Benedetto Dei, the contemporary "fanatical enumerator" of Florentine life, there were only 8 poultry suppliers in Florence in 1472, but 44

goldsmith A goldsmith is a Metalworking, metalworker who specializes in working with gold and other precious metals. Modern goldsmiths mainly specialize in jewelry-making but historically, they have also made cutlery, silverware, platter (dishware), plat ...

's workshops. Antonio was the eldest son; the two middle brothers respectively went into poultry (eventually inheriting that business) and goldsmithing. The youngest brother was Piero, and he and Antonio very frequently worked together, though their workshops were physically "separate but mutually accessible". Piero's training is uncertain. The Florentine painter

Andrea del Castagno Andrea del Castagno () or Andrea di Bartolo di Bargilla (; – 19 August 1457) was an Italian Renaissance painting, Italian Renaissance painter in Florence, influenced chiefly by Masaccio and Giotto, Giotto di Bondone. His works include fresc ...

(d. 1457) has been considered as a possible master (sometimes for both brothers) on stylistic grounds and the authority of Vasari, but problems with the dating makes this questioned by many scholars. In a surviving letter by Antonio of 1494 he says that he and a brother (presumed to be Piero) painted the three huge canvases of three ''Labours of Hercules'' for the Medici Palace thirty-four years before; these were famous in their time, but are now lost. Art historians think he may have misremembered the date by a year or two. According to Francesco Albertini, writing in 1510, he painted a fresco of

Saint Christopher Saint Christopher (, , ; ) is venerated by several Christian denominations. According to these traditions, he was a martyr killed in the reign of the 3rd-century Roman Empire, Roman emperor Decius (), or alternatively under the emperor Maximin ...

six metres high on the facade of San Miniato fra le Torri, near his house; both church and fresco have now disappeared. Albertini gives to Piero alone the ''Saint Sebastian'' altarpiece now in London, the '' Cardinal of Portugal's Altarpiece'', and others. His only signed work, the ''

'' in San Gimignano, is dated 1483. In about 1484, when he was around 41, he followed Antonio to Rome, and thereafter seems to have spent most of his time there until his death. Not many works are usually allocated to this period. The last certain record of him is when he was paid for a now unidentified painting in

Pistoia Cathedral Pistoia Cathedral, or Cathedral of Saint Zeno ( or ''Cattedrale di San Zeno'') is the main religious building of Pistoia, Tuscany, central Italy, located in the ''Piazza del Duomo'' in the centre of the city. It is the seat of the Bishop of Pist ...

in November 1485. It is clear from Antonio's will of November 1496 that he was dead by then; otherwise the date and circumstances of his death are unknown. As his tomb is in Rome he is thought to have died there, like Antonio. He had never married, but left an illegitimate daughter called Lisa, whose care was entrusted to Antonio; she later married, with Antonio giving 150 lire to her

dowry A dowry is a payment such as land, property, money, livestock, or a commercial asset that is paid by the bride's (woman's) family to the groom (man) or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price ...

Style

The characterisation of his style inevitably depends on which paintings are attributed to him and his workshop. Over a century ago Wilhelm Bode complained of Maud Cruttwell in her monograph on the brothers "it is hardly permissable for Miss Cruttwell to attribute whichever of the paintings pleases her best to Antonio and the rest to Piero". This was really directed at

Bernard Berenson Bernard Berenson (June 26, 1865 – October 6, 1959) was an American art historian specializing in the Renaissance. His book ''The Drawings of the Florentine Painters'' was an international success. His wife Mary is thought to have had a large ...

, who Bode saw as Cruttwell's mentor, who was especially critical of the few works and elements of works he allowed to Piero. He said in 1903 that the ''

'' in

San Gimignano San Gimignano (; named after St. Geminianus) is a small walled medieval hill town in the province of Siena, Tuscany, north-central Italy. Known as the Town of Five Towers, San Gimignano is famous for its medieval architecture, unique in the pr ...

was "a picture of unalloyed mediocrity, with scarcely a touch of charm to repay the absence of life and vigour".

Frederick Hartt Frederick Hartt (May 22, 1914 – October 31, 1991) was an Italian Renaissance scholar, author and professor of art history. His books include ''History of Italian Renaissance Art'', '' Art: A History of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture '' ...

, an enthusiast for Antonio, remarked that "Piero... was a painter—a dull one, judging by his one signed work" (the San Gimignano ''Coronation''). By contrast, Aldo Galli describes it as "a magnificent painting" that "presents ... close stylistic and technical affinities with" other works he attributes to Piero, and others have attributed to Antonio: the six ''Virtues'', the '' Cardinal of Portugal's altarpiece'', and the London ''Saint Sebastian''. According to Galli, "What they all have in common is a pronounced taste for precious effects, the highly efficacious imitation of jewels, brocades, velvets, with an illusionistic and tactile treatment based on the extensive and experimental use of oil-based binders (at the height of the reign of tempera in Florence), in open emulation of the Flemish masters. This refulgent pictorial treatment characterizes compositions that are highly studied, always somewhat artificial, populated with rather lanky and awkward figures, often seen with bottom-to-top perspective, with hands and feet that are nervously articulated, somewhat affected, emerging in their aristocratic pallor from silks and velvets studded with rubies and gilded trimmings".

Works

*'' Profile Portrait of a Young Woman'' (c. 1465) – oil on wood, Berlin, often given to Antonio. *''

Tobias and the Angel Tobias and the Angel is the traditional title of depictions in art of a passage from the Book of Tobit in which Tobias, son of Tobit, travels with the Archangel Raphael without realising he is an angel (5.5–6) and is then instructed by Raphael ...

'' (c. 1465–1470),

Turin Turin ( , ; ; , then ) is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy. It is the capital city of Piedmont and of the Metropolitan City of Turin, and was the first Italian capital from 1861 to 1865. The city is main ...

, given by the museum to both brothers. *'' Cardinal of Portugal's altarpiece'' (1467–1468) –

, long given to Antonio. Now Uffizi. * Seven Virtues, 1469–1470; six painted by Pollaiuolo, all now

. Documented as by Piero, in terms of the payments. *: ''Charity'' *: ''Faith'' *: ''Temperance'' *: ''Prudence'' *: ''Hope'' *: ''Justice'' *'' Portrait of a Young Woman'', c. 1470, Milan. *''Portrait of a Lady'',

Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum is an art museum in Boston, Massachusetts, which houses significant examples of European, Asian, and American art. Its collection includes paintings, sculpture, tapestries, and decorative arts. It was found ...

, Boston. *''

'', c. 1470–1480,

, who in 2023 give it to Piero alone (formerly usually Antonio). *'' Portrait of Galeazzo Maria Sforza'', 1471, tempera on wood,

. This was recorded as by Piero in a Palazzo Medici inventory in 1492, and so has always been regarded as by him. It is in poor condition. The turning pose with a hand shown is unusual for Florence at this time, and may have been suggested by the sitter, the Duke of Milan who was very interested in portraiture. *'' Portrait of a Woman'', c. 1475,

(who in 2023 still attribute it to Antonio). *''

Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian Sebastian (; ) was an early Christianity, Christian saint and martyr. According to traditional belief, he was killed during the Diocletianic Persecution of Christians. He was initially tied to a post or tree and shot with arrows, though this d ...

'', completed 1475, oil on wood,

, who have long attributed it to both brothers; for Galli it is entirely by Piero and his team. *''

'' (1483) – altarpiece now in

, Piero's only signed and dated work.Galli, 35 ;Always or traditionally attributed to Piero File:Piero del Pollaiolo temperance.jpg, ''Temperance'' from the ''Seven Virtues'', 1469–1470,

(and the other five Piero was commissioned to do). File:Piero Pollaiuolo Portrait of Galeazzo Maria Sforza.jpg, '' Portrait of Galeazzo Maria Sforza'', 1471,

File:Incoronazione di Maria e i Ss. Nicola da Bari, Agostino, Gimignano, Niccolò da Tolentino e Girolamo di Piero Pollaiolo, 1483 (cropped).jpg, ''

'',

, signed and dated 1483

Notes

References

* Campbell, Lorne, ''Renaissance Portraits, European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries'', 1990, Yale, * Davies, Martin, ''The Earlier Italian Schools'', National Gallery Catalogues, 1961, reprinted 1986, *Galli, Aldo, "The Fortune of the Pollaiuolo Brothers", in ''Antonio and Piero del Pollaiuolo: "Silver and Gold, Painting and Bronze”'', exhibition catalogue (Milan, Museo Poldi Pezzoli, 2014 – 2015), eds. A. Di Lorenzo and A. Galli , Milan 2014, pp. 25–77
PDF on Academia.edu
* Hartt, Frederick, ''History of Italian Renaissance Art'', (2nd edn.)1987, Thames & Hudson (US Harry N Abrams), *Seymour, Charles Jr., ''Sculpture in Italy, 1400–1500'', 1966, Penguin (Pelican History of Art)
"Vasari
:

's joint biography of the Pollaiuolo brothers, in his ''

Lives of the Artists ''The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects'' () is a series of artist biographies written by 16th-century Italian painter and architect Giorgio Vasari, which is considered "perhaps the most famous, and even today the ...

''. *Wright, Alison, ''The Pollaiuolo Brothers: The Arts of Florence and Rome'', 2005, Yale, ISBN 9780300106251
google books

External links

Piero del Pollaiuolo at Panopticon Virtual Art Gallery''Italian Paintings: Florentine School''
a

collection catalog containing information about Pollaiuolo and his works (see pages 123–125; MMA
50.135.3
. {{DEFAULTSORT:Pollaiuolo, Piero del 1440s births 1496 deaths Painters from Florence Quattrocento painters Italian male painters Italian Renaissance painters 15th-century Italian painters Catholic painters Sibling artists