Pentatomidae - Apodiphus Amygdali

Pentatomidae is a family of insects belonging to the order Hemiptera, generally called shield bugs or stink bugs. Pentatomidae is the largest family in the superfamily Pentatomoidea, and contains around 900 genera and over 4700 species.Robert G. Foottit, Peter H. Adler ''Insect Biodiversity: Science and Society'', John Wiley and Sons, 2009, As hemipterans, the pentatomids have piercing sucking mouthparts, and most are phytophagous, including several species which are severe pests on agricultural crops. However, some species, particularly in the subfamily Asopinae, are predatory and may be considered beneficial.

Etymology

The name "Pentatomidae" is from the Greek ''pente'' meaning "five" and ''tomos'' meaning "section", and refers to the five segments of their antennae. Pentatomids are generally called "shield bugs" in British English, or "stink bugs" in American English. However, the term shield bugs is also applied broadly to include several related families (e.g. Acanthosomatidae, Scutelleridae, and Cydnidae), or specifically only to refer to species in the family Acanthosomatidae. The term shield bug refers to the generalized body shape of adult bugs in these families which resembles a heraldic shield when viewed from above.

The American name "stink bug" is specific to the Pentatomidae, and refers to their ability to release a pungent defensive spray when threatened, disturbed, or crushed. The composition of this spray may vary between species, and even by sex or age, but generally includes aldehydes and alkanes. Descriptions of the smells vary widely, and include oily, dusty, woody and earthy, and like coriander. In some species, the liquid contains cyanide compounds and a rancid almond scent, used to protect themselves and discourage predators.

The term "stink bug" may also be a vernacular for unrelated insects such as pinacate beetles (in the genus ''Eleodes'').

Description

All pentatomids have 5-segmented antennae, and 3 tarsal segments on each foot. They generally have a large triangular scutellum in the center of the back. The body shape of adult pentatomids is generally " shieldlike," when viewed from above, but this varies between species, and is not true for the immature nymphal stages. The forewings of stink bugs are called hemelytra, with the basal half thickened while the apex is membranous. At rest, the wings are laid across the back of the insect, with the membranous wingtips overlapping. The hindwings are entirely membranous.

Economics

Several stink bugs and shield bugs are considered agricultural pests, because they can grow into large populations that feed on crops, damage production, and they are resistant to many pesticides. They are a threat to cotton, corn, sorghum, soybeans, native and ornamental trees, shrubs, vines, weeds, and many cultivated crops.

In Mexico, some species of stink bugs are called ''jumil'', ''chinche de monte'', ''xotlinilli'', or ''chumil'' (e.g. '' Edessa mexicana''). They are most often eaten in the states of Morelos and Guerrero. The flavor is sometimes said to resemble cinnamon, or sometimes a bitter medicinal flavor. ''Jumiles'' may be used for making sauces or as a taco filling.

Since its recent arrival in the U.S., the brown marmorated stink bug population has grown significantly. As of October 2014, brown marmorated stink bugs can be found in 41 out of 50 states within the U.S. In 2016 New Zealand's MPI put out an alert to prevent this invasive species from entering via imported cargo.

Pest control and management

Changes in winter temperatures may exacerbate the threat posed by Pentatomidae pest species. Habitats that have been identified as suitable for Pentatomidae expansion, such as the Midwest region of the United States, are likely to be heavily impacted by the increased threat. Furthermore, temperature affects life table parameters, such as survival, development, reproduction, and daily mortality, which can impact a variety of crops depending on the injury stink bugs have on them.

As the effects of climate change increase the impacts of stinkbugs on crops, improving efficacy of existing controls and developing new solutions will be critical for pest control. Chemical control programs are commonly used to manage stink bugs, however, there is evidence of increasing insecticide resistance that will decrease the efficacy of these programs over time. Alternatives to insecticides include the removal of symbionts, using traps that disrupt stinkbug vibratory communication and chemical pheromone traps.

Taxonomy

There are several subfamilies, of which the Aphylinae is often given family status, but is here retained as a subfamily, following Grazia ''et al.'' (2008). The subfamilies include:
* Aphylinae Bergroth, 1906 - Australia
# '' Aphylus'' Bergroth, 1906
# '' Neoaphylum'' Štys & Davidová-Vilímová, 2001
*Asopinae Spinola, 1850 - Worldwide
** ''Troilus'' Stål, 1868
*Cyrtocorinae Distant, 1880 - Americas
# '' Ceratozygum'' Horváth, 1916
# '' Cyphothyrea'' Horváth, 1916
# '' Cyrtocoris'' White, 1842
# '' Pseudocyrtocoris'' Jensen-Haarup, 1926
*Discocephalinae Fieber, 1860 - Americas
** '' Discocephala'' Laporte, 1832
** '' Ochlerus'' Spinola, 1837
*Edessinae Fieber, 1860 - Americas

# '' Anisoedessa'' Nunes & Fernandes, 2019
# '' Brachystethus'' Laporte, 1833
# '' Doesburgedessa'' Fernandes, 2010
# ''Edessa (bug)'' Fabricius, 1803
# '' Grammedessa'' Correia & Fernandes, 2016
# '' Lopadusa'' Stål, 1860
# '' Mediocampus'' Thomas, 1994
# '' Neopharnus'' Van Duzee, 1910
# '' Olbia (bug)'' Stål, 1862
# '' Pantochlora'' Stål, 1870
# '' Paraedessa'' Silva & Fernandes, 2013
# '' Peromatus'' Amyot & Serville, 1843
# '' Pharnus'' Stål, 1867
# '' Plagaedessa'' Almeida & Fernandes, 2018
# '' Platistocoris'' Rider, 1998
# '' Praepharnus'' Barber & Bruner, 1932

*Pentatominae Leach, 1815 - Worldwide
** '' Bathycoelia'' Amyot & Serville, 1843
** '' Pentatoma'' Olivier, 1789
*Phyllocephalinae

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