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''Penicillium chrysogenum'' (formerly known as ''Penicillium notatum'') is a species of fungus in the genus ''
Penicillium ''Penicillium'' () is a genus of Ascomycota, ascomycetous fungus, fungi that is part of the mycobiome of many species and is of major importance in the natural environment, in food spoilage, and in food and drug production. Some members of th ...
''. It is common in
temperate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ran ...
and
subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones immediately to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Ge ...
regions and can be found on salted food products, but it is mostly found in indoor environments, especially in damp or water-damaged buildings. It has been recognised as a species complex that includes ''P. notatum'', ''P. meleagrinum,'' and ''P. cyaneofulvum.'' Molecular phylogeny has established that
Alexander Fleming Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955) was a Scottish physician and microbiologist, best known for discovering the world's first broadly effective antibiotic substance, which he named penicillin. His discovery in 1928 of wha ...
's first discovered penicillin producing strain is of a distinct species, '' P. rubens'', and not of ''P. notatum.'' It has rarely been reported as a cause of human
disease A disease is a particular abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function (biology), function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical condi ...
. It is the source of several β-lactam antibiotics, most significantly
penicillin Penicillins (P, PCN or PEN) are a group of beta-lactam antibiotic, β-lactam antibiotics originally obtained from ''Penicillium'' Mold (fungus), moulds, principally ''Penicillium chrysogenum, P. chrysogenum'' and ''Penicillium rubens, P. ru ...
. Other secondary
metabolite In biochemistry, a metabolite is an intermediate or end product of metabolism. The term is usually used for small molecules. Metabolites have various functions, including fuel, structure, signaling, stimulatory and inhibitory effects on enzymes, c ...
s of ''P. chrysogenum'' include roquefortine C, meleagrin, chrysogine, 6-MSA YWA1/melanin, andrastatin A, fungisporin, secalonic acids, sorbicillin, and PR-toxin. Like the many other species of the genus ''
Penicillium ''Penicillium'' () is a genus of Ascomycota, ascomycetous fungus, fungi that is part of the mycobiome of many species and is of major importance in the natural environment, in food spoilage, and in food and drug production. Some members of th ...
'', ''P. chrysogenum'' usually reproduces by forming dry chains of
spores In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plant ...
(or
conidia A conidium ( ; : conidia), sometimes termed an asexual chlamydospore or chlamydoconidium (: chlamydoconidia), is an asexual, non- motile spore of a fungus. The word ''conidium'' comes from the Ancient Greek word for dust, ('). They are also ...
) from brush-shaped conidiophores. The conidia are typically carried by air currents to new colonisation sites. In ''P. chrysogenum'', the conidia are blue to blue-green, and the mold sometimes exudes a yellow pigment. However, ''P. chrysogenum'' cannot be identified based on colour alone. Observations of morphology and microscopic features are needed to confirm its identity and
DNA sequencing DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. The ...
is essential to distinguish it from closely related species such as ''P. rubens''. The sexual stage of ''P. chrysogenum'' was discovered in 2013 by mating cultures in the dark on oatmeal agar supplemented with
biotin Biotin (also known as vitamin B7 or vitamin H) is one of the B vitamins. It is involved in a wide range of metabolic processes, both in humans and in other organisms, primarily related to the utilization of fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids. ...
, after the mating types (MAT1-1 or MAT1-2) of the strains had been determined using PCR amplification. The airborne asexual spores of ''P. chrysogenum'' are important human allergens. Vacuolar and alkaline
serine protease Serine proteases (or serine endopeptidases) are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins. Serine serves as the nucleophilic amino acid at the (enzyme's) active site. They are found ubiquitously in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Serin ...
s have been implicated as the major allergenic proteins. ''P. chrysogenum'' has been used industrially to produce penicillin and xanthocillin X, to treat
pulp mill A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fiber sources into a thick fiber board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical, or ...
waste, and to produce the enzymes polyamine oxidase, phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, and glucose oxidase.


Science

The discovery of
penicillin Penicillins (P, PCN or PEN) are a group of beta-lactam antibiotic, β-lactam antibiotics originally obtained from ''Penicillium'' Mold (fungus), moulds, principally ''Penicillium chrysogenum, P. chrysogenum'' and ''Penicillium rubens, P. ru ...
ushered in a new age of antibiotics derived from microorganisms. Penicillin is an antibiotic isolated from growing ''Penicillium'' mold in a fermenter. The mold is grown in a liquid culture containing
sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose Glucose is a sugar with the Chemical formula#Molecular formula, molecul ...
and other nutrients including a source of
nitrogen Nitrogen is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen is a Nonmetal (chemistry), nonmetal and the lightest member of pnictogen, group 15 of the periodic table, often called the Pnictogen, pnictogens. ...
. As the mold grows, it uses up the sugar and starts to make penicillin only after using up most of the nutrients for growth.


History


Genetics and evolution

The ability to produce penicillin appears to have evolved over millions of years, and is shared with several other related fungi. It is believed to confer a selective advantage during competition with bacteria for food sources. Some bacteria have consequently developed the counter-ability to survive penicillin exposure by producing penicillinases, enzymes that degrade penicillin, thus becoming penicillin resistant. The principal genes responsible for producing penicillin, ''pcbAB'', ''pcbC'', and ''penDE'' are closely linked, forming a cluster on chromosome I. Some high-producing ''Penicillium chrysogenum'' strains used for the industrial production of penicillin contain multiple tandem copies of the penicillin gene cluster. Similar to other filamentous fungi, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing techniques are available for editing the genome of ''Penicillium chrysogenum''.


References


External links

* {{Authority control Fungi described in 1910 chrysogenum Medicinal fungi Taxa named by Charles Thom Fungus species